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The Meiji Restoration in Japan was successful and led to the establishment of a colonial empire.^[1] Despite reforms, Ottoman Empire declined and saw arrival of millions of mostly-Muslim refugees fleeing Circassian genocide and other persecution.^[2]

2[edit]

Karpat, Kemal H. (2004). Studies on Turkish Politics and Society: Selected Articles and Essays. Leiden Boston: BRILL. ISBN 978-9004133228.
Kaser, Karl (2011). The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History. Berlin Wien: LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-50190-5.

^ McNeill & Pomeranz 2015a, pp. 386, 388, 390–91
^
- McNeill & Pomeranz 2015a, pp. 370, 430–431
- McNeill & Pomeranz 2015b, p. 5
- Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former 'suppressors'. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
- Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."

[1] McNeill & Pomeranz 2015a, pp. 386, 388, 390–91

[2] 
McNeill & Pomeranz 2015a, pp. 370, 430–431
McNeill & Pomeranz 2015b, p. 5
Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former 'suppressors'. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."

[3] McNeill & Pomeranz 2015a, pp. 370, 430–431

[4] McNeill & Pomeranz 2015b, p. 5

[5] Kaser 2011, p. 336: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former 'suppressors'. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"

[6] Karpat 2004, pp. 5–6: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries..."

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