User:Clodhopper2024/p

Abbas the Great (Persian Empire)

Act II, Scene i, Line 25 makes reference to "the Sophy":

By this scimitar

That slew the Sophy and a Persian prince
That won three fields of Sultan Solyman,
I would o'erstare the sternest eyes that look,
Outbrave the heart most daring on the earth,
Pluck the young sucking cubs from the she-bear,
Yea, mock the lion when he roars for prey,

To win the lady.

— Act II, Scene i, Lines 24-31

Uae of the term Sophy as a reference to the ruler of the Safavid dynasty of Iran gained much more prominence during the rule of Shah Abbas I (commonly known as Abbas the Great), the fifth shah of Safavid Iran from 1588 to 1629. The third son of Shah Mohammad Khodabanda, he is generally considered one of the greatest rulers of Iranian history and the Safavid dynasty. Iran's enemies included its archrival, the Ottoman Empire. The Empire Abbas inherited was in a desperate state, and he determined that it was essential for him to re-establish order within Iran. To this end he made a humiliating peace treaty – known as the Treaty of Istanbul – with the Ottomans in 1590, ceding to them the provinces of Azerbaijan, Karabagh, Ganja, Dagestan, and Qarajadagh, as well as parts of Georgia, Luristan and Kurdistan. This demeaning treaty even ceded the previous capital of Tabriz to the Ottomans. During the ten years it took Abbas to get his military in shape, the Uzbeks and the Ottomans took swaths of territory from Iran. In this endeavour, Abbas was able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly the English adventurers Sir Anthony Shirley and his brother Robert Shirley, who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the Earl of Essex on an unofficial mission to persuade Persia to enter into an anti-Ottoman alliance. In 1608 Shah Abbas sent Robert on a diplomatic mission to James I of England and to other European princes for the purpose of uniting them in a confederacy against the Ottoman Empire. From his very first mission in Persia, the modernisation of the army by Robert and his men proved to be highly successful; the Safavids scored their first crushing victory over the Ottomans in the Ottoman–Safavid War, ending the war on highly favourable terms.

Angel Coin (Contemporary)

Act II, Scene vii, Line ? makes reference to "They have in England / A coin that bears the figure of an angel / Stamped in gold":

They have in England

A coin that bears the figure of an angel

Stamped in gold, but that’s insculped upon.

— Act II, Scene vii, Lines ?

In Elizabethan England, there was a gold coin called an "Angel" (first introduced by Edward IV in 1465), featuring an engraving of the prince-protector and guardian of the Church Archangel Saint Michael slaying a dragon (representing Satan), whose value ranged between 6 shillings and eight pence (one third of a pound) and 11 shillings during its history (it was valued at 10 shillings during the reign of Elizabeth I).

Apollo (Greek God)

Act II, Scene i, Line 5 makes reference to "Phoebus' fire":

Bring me the fairest creature northward born,

Where Phoebus' fire scarce thaws the icicles,
And let us make incision for your love

To prove whose blood is reddest, his or mine.

— Act II, Scene i, Lines 4-7

Phoebus was the chief epithet for the Greek god Apollo, very commonly used by both the Greeks and Romans for his role as the god of light. One of the most important and complex of the Greek gods, he is the son of Zeus and Leto, and the twin brother of Artemis, goddess of the hunt. He is considered to be the most beautiful god and is represented as the ideal of the kouros (ephebe, or a beardless, athletic youth). As the patron deity of Delphi (Apollo Pythios), Apollo is an oracular god — the prophetic deity of the Delphic Oracle and also the deity of ritual purification. He was in general seen as the god who affords help and wards off evil, and is referred to as Alexicacus, the "averter of evil". When Apollo was exiled from Olympus for killing the monstrous serpent Python, he served as a herdsman under Admetus (the king of Pherae, known for his hospitality), who was then young and unmarried. Apollo is said to have shared a romantic relationship with Admetus during his stay. The love between Apollo and Admetus was a favored topic of Roman poets like Ovid and Servius. Apollo was also responsible for granting Nestor an extended life for the years that he had taken away from the Niobids (sons of Niobe, the queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion) that he had killed.

Black Monday 1360 (The Hundred Years' War)

Act II, Scene v, Line ? makes reference to "on Black Monday last":

I will not say you shall see a masque, but if you do then it was not for nothing that my nose fell a-bleeding on Black Monday last at six o'clock i' th' morning falling out that year on Ash Wednesday was four year in th' afternoon.

— Act II, Scene v, Line ?

Black Monday took place on Easter Monday in 1360 during the Hundred Years' War (1337–1360), when a freak hail storm struck and killed an estimated 1,000 English soldiers. The storm was so devastating that it caused more English casualties than any of the previous battles of the war. On 5 April 1360, Edward III, King of England led his army of 10,000 men (including approximately 4,000 men-at-arms, 700 continental mercenaries, 5,000 mounted archers) to the gates of Paris, in one of the largest English armies fielded in the Hundred Years' War. However, the defenders of Paris led by Charles, the Dauphin of France, refused battle. It was not possible to breach the defenses so over the next week Edward would try to induce the Dauphin into open battle. All attempts at the latter would prove futile and undermine Edward's hope for a decisive outcome. The English left the vicinity of Paris after laying waste to the countryside, and marched towards the French cathedral city of Chartres. On Easter Monday, 13 April, Edward's army arrived at the gates of Chartres. The French defenders again refused battle, instead sheltering behind their fortifications, and a siege ensued. The French defence was low in numbers and led by the Abbot of Cluny, Androuin de La Roche. That night, the English army made camp outside Chartres in an open plain. A sudden storm materialized and lightning struck, killing several people. The temperature fell dramatically and huge hailstones – along with freezing rain – began pelting the soldiers, scattering the horses. Two of the English leaders were killed, and panic set in among the troops, who had little to no shelter from the storm. One described it as "a foul day, full of myst and hayle, so that men dyed on horseback [sic].” Tents were torn apart by the fierce wind and baggage trains were strewn around. In half an hour, the precipitation and intense cold killed nearly 1,000 Englishmen and up to 6,000 horses. Among the injured English leaders was Sir Guy de Beauchamp II, the eldest son of Thomas de Beauchamp, the 11th Earl of Warwick; he would die of his injuries two weeks after. Edward was convinced the phenomenon was a sign from God against his endeavours. During the climax of the storm he is said to have dismounted from his horse and knelt in the direction of the Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres. He recited a vow of peace and was convinced to negotiate with the French. French friar Jean de Venette credited the apocalyptic storm as the result of the English looting of the French countryside during the observant week of Lent. On 8 May 1360, three weeks later, the Treaty of Brétigny was signed, marking the end of the first phase of the Hundred Years' War.

The Capture of Cádiz 1596 (Anglo-Spanish War)

Act I, Scene i, Line 27 references "my wealthy Andrew docked in sand":

"I should not see the sandy hourglass run,
But I should think of shallows and of flats
And see my wealthy Andrew docked in sand,
Vailing her high top lower than her ribs

To kiss her burial.

— Act I, Scene i, Lines 25-29

This phrase is believed to be a reference to the San Andrés (St. Andrew), one of two Spanish galleons of the Spanish treasure fleet which ran aground while being towed back to England following the ship's capture in the 30 June 1596 raid on the Spanish city of Cádiz during the ongoing Anglo-Spanish War. This was one of the worst Spanish defeats during the war, with the consequent economic losses estimated at 5 million ducats, a contributing factor to the bankruptcy of the royal treasury that same year. The victory was celebrated in England, and its reference in the play is used as a terminus post quem (earliest possible date) for the play's dating.

Catherine Parr (Contemporary)

Act III, Scene i, Line ? makes reference to "a gossip in that as ever knapped ginger or made her neighbors believe she wept for the death of a third husband":

I would she were as lying a gossip in that as ever knapped ginger or made her neighbors believe she wept for the death of a third husband.

— Act III, Scene i, Line ?

Elizabeth I in her youth was described as having reddish hair. At the age of 14, following the death of her father and her younger brother's ascension to the throne, she was taken away to live in Chelsea with Catherine Parr - the sixth and final husband of Elizabeth's father, Henry VIII - and Thomas Seymour, Baron Seymour of Sudeley, whom Catherine had married shortly after Henry's death, and whilst living there Seymour engaged in inappropriate activities with the adolescent Elizabeth, sometimes aided by Catherine. Henry VIII had been been Catherine's third husband. Her first marriage had been to Sir Edward Burgh. When they had married in 1529, Sir Edward was in his early twenties and, although almost nothing is known about his character, it appears that his health kept him in a frail condition. Whatever the case, Edward was competent enough for his father, Thomas, to allow him the duties and responsibilities of part of his inheritance – he served as both a feoffee and a justice of the peace. The couple initially lived at Gainsborough Old Hall under an overbearing father given to violent rages, the memories of whose recently deceased lunatic father (Edward Borough) were prevalent. Sir Edward's father ruled his family with an iron hand, requiring absolute obedience. Some time after his marriage to Catherine, his father had another daughter-in-law, Elizabeth Owen, thrown out of the household and her children with his younger brother, Thomas, declared bastards. Sir Edward lived in constant fear of his own father. The duty of Sir Edward's wife, Catherine, was to bear sons, which did not happen. Failure to do so, however, may not have been all her fault. Having been raised in a liberal and enlightened household maintained by her mother, Edward Borough's new bride was unused to the paternal tyranny of the household at Gainsborough. If Sir Thomas attempted to intimidate his daughter-in-law, he did not succeed. In fact, Sir Thomas came to find that Catherine was made of sterner stuff than his own sons. The historical record on whether or not Catherine was ever pregnant by Edward is silent. If she was, certainly no child lived to full term or survived infancy. Although her immediate family would have known, they, along with Catherine, never spoke of it and there is no record of children by Sir Edward. For a time, Edward and Catherine lived with Edward's family at Gainsborough Old Hall. If his wife was homesick or unhappy, she had reason to be and wrote frequently to her mother for advice. Maud Parr traveled north in 1530 to see Catherine and it is most likely at her urging that the couple move out of the Old Hall after two years of marriage. Sir Thomas was a steward to the manor of the soke of Kirton-in-Lindsey, a small town about ten miles above Gainsborough. Thomas was persuaded to secure a joint patent in survivorship with his son. In October 1530, Edward and Catherine moved to Kirton-in-Lindsey. It was a modest residence, but mainly it was away from Edward's family and was a household in which the couple could manage their own affairs. Instead of becoming the passive lady of the household, Edward's wife, Catherine, took control of the household immediately. It brought both Edward and Catherine great joy to be away from the Old Hall. In 1532, Edward was named to the various commissions of peace that held session in the area, but by April 1533, Edward and Catherine's marriage came to an end when Edward Borough died. His widow, Catherine, unable to remain at Kirton-in Lindsey, which belonged to her father-in-law, had limited options. Her in-laws showed no desire to have her move back into Gainsborough Old Hall. Lord Burgh turned over the income of two of his manors in Surrey and one in Kent as her dowry and that was the end of it. With no children from their marriage, she no longer had ties to the Boroughs. Biographer Linda Porter has determined that the younger Sir Edward Burgh died in the spring of 1533. Others state before April 1533. Burgh had no issue. Following her first husband's death, Catherine Parr may have spent time with the Dowager Lady Strickland, Katherine Neville, who was the widow of Catherine's cousin Sir Walter Strickland, at the Stricklands' family residence of Sizergh Castle in Westmorland (now in Cumbria). In the summer of 1534, Catherine married, secondly, John Neville, 3rd Baron Latimer, her father's second cousin and a kinsman of Lady Strickland. With this marriage, Catherine became only the second woman in the Parr family to marry into the peerage. The twice-widowed Latimer was nearly twice Catherine's age. From his first marriage to Dorothy de Vere, sister of John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, he had two children, John and Margaret. Although Latimer was in financial difficulties after he and his brothers had pursued legal action to claim the title of Earl of Warwick, Catherine now had a home of her own, a title and a husband with a position and influence in the north. Latimer was a supporter of the Catholic Church and had opposed the king's first annulment, his subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn, and the religious consequences. In October 1536, during the Lincolnshire Rising, Catholic rebels appeared before the Latimers' home, threatening violence if Latimer did not join their efforts to reinstate the links between England and Rome. Catherine watched as her husband was dragged away. Between October 1536 and April 1537, Catherine lived alone in fear with her step-children, struggling to survive. It is probable that, in these uncertain times, Catherine's strong reaction against the rebellion strengthened her adherence to the reformed Church of England. In January 1537, during the uprising known as the Pilgrimage of Grace, Catherine and her step-children were held hostage at Snape Castle in North Yorkshire. The rebels ransacked the house and sent word to Lord Latimer, who was returning from London, that if he did not return immediately they would kill his family. When Latimer returned to the castle, he managed to talk the rebels into releasing his family and leaving, but the aftermath was taxing on the whole family. The king and Thomas Cromwell heard conflicting reports as to whether Latimer was a prisoner or a conspirator. As a conspirator, he could be found guilty of treason, forfeiting his estates and leaving Catherine and her step-children penniless. The king himself wrote to Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk, pressing him to make sure Latimer would "condemn that villain [Robert] Aske and submit to our clemency". Latimer complied. It is likely that Catherine's brother William Parr and her uncle, William Parr, 1st Baron Parr of Horton, who both fought against the rebellion, intervened to save Latimer's life. Although no charges were laid against him, Latimer's reputation, which reflected upon Catherine, was tarnished for the rest of his life. Over the next seven years, the family spent much of their time in the south. In 1542, the family spent time in London as Latimer attended Parliament. Catherine visited her brother William Parr, 1st Marquess of Northampton and her sister Anne Parr, Countess of Pembroke at court. It was here that Catherine became acquainted with her future fourth husband, Sir Thomas Seymour. The atmosphere of the court was greatly different from that of the rural estates she knew. There, Catherine could find the latest trends, not only in religious matters, but in less weighty secular matters such as fashion and jewellery. By the winter of 1542, Lord Latimer's health had worsened. Catherine nursed her husband until his death in 1543. In his will, Catherine was named as guardian of his daughter, Margaret, and was put in charge of his affairs until his daughter's majority. Latimer left Catherine a life interest in the manor of Stowe in Northamptonshire, eleven miles from Horton, and other properties. He also bequeathed money for supporting his daughter, and in the case that his daughter did not marry within five years, Catherine was to take £30 a year out of the income to support her. Catherine was left a rich widow, but after Lord Latimer's death she faced the possibility of having to return north. It is likely that Catherine sincerely mourned her husband; she kept a remembrance of him, his New Testament with his name inscribed inside, until her death. Using her late mother's friendship with Henry's first queen, Catherine of Aragon, Catherine took the opportunity to renew her own friendship with the former queen's daughter, Lady Mary. By 16 February 1543, Catherine had established herself as part of Mary's household, and it was there that Catherine caught the attention of the king. Although she had begun a romantic friendship with Sir Thomas Seymour, the brother of the late queen Jane Seymour, she saw it as her duty to accept Henry's proposal over Seymour's. Seymour was given a posting in Brussels to remove him from the king's court. Shortly before he died, Henry made provision for an allowance of £7,000 per year for Catherine to support herself. He further ordered that, after his death, Catherine, though a queen dowager, should be given the respect of a queen of England, as if he were still alive. After the coronation of her stepson, Edward VI, on 31 January 1547, Catherine retired from court to her home at Old Manor in Chelsea. Following Henry's death, Catherine's old love and the new king's uncle, Thomas Seymour (who was soon created 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley), returned to court. Catherine was quick to accept when Seymour renewed his suit of marriage. Since only four months had passed since the death of King Henry, Seymour knew that the Regency council would not agree to a petition for the queen dowager to marry so soon. Sometime near the end of May, Catherine and Seymour married in secret. King Edward VI and the council were not informed of the union for several months. When their union became public knowledge, it caused a small scandal. The king and Lady Mary were very much displeased by the union. After being censured and reprimanded by the council, Seymour wrote to the Lady Mary asking her to intervene on his behalf. Mary became furious at his forwardness and tasteless actions and refused to help. Mary even went as far as asking her half-sister, Lady Elizabeth, not to interact with Queen Catherine any further. During this time, Catherine began having altercations with her brother-in-law, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. Like Thomas, Edward was the king's uncle, and also was the Lord Protector. A rivalry developed between Catherine and his wife, her own former lady-in-waiting, Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset, which became particularly acute over the matter of Catherine's jewels. The Duchess argued that Catherine, as queen dowager, was no longer entitled to wear the jewels belonging to the wife of the king. Instead she, as the wife of the protector, should be the one to wear them. The whole ordeal left her relationship with Catherine permanently damaged; the relationship between the two Seymour brothers also worsened as a result, since Thomas saw the whole dispute as a personal attack by his brother on his social standing. In November 1547, Catherine published her third book, The Lamentation of a Sinner. The book promoted the Protestant concept of justification by faith alone, which the Catholic Church deemed to be heresy. It was sponsored by Katherine Brandon, the Duchess of Suffolk, and by William Parr (Catherine's brother), and William Cecil, Elizabeth I's future chief minister, wrote the preface. In 1544 or 1545, Parr had started to organise an English translation of Erasmus's Paraphrases Upon the New Testament, and the massive volume was finally printed in January 1548. Parr had enlisted Nicholas Udall, Thomas Keyes and Mary Tudor to translate different sections and she may have produced the paraphrase of Matthew. In July 1547 the Edwardian state ordered every parish to obtain a copy and many generations of literate parishioners would have encountered lengthy dedications praising Parr's learning, her commitment to the vernacular Bible, and her role in the English reformation. Parr owned many books and she participated in the cultural practice of writing in her books and signing books that belonged to others. At the age of 35, Catherine became pregnant. This pregnancy was a surprise, as Catherine had not conceived during her first three marriages. During this time, Seymour began to take an interest in Lady Elizabeth. Seymour had reputedly plotted to marry her before marrying Catherine, and it was reported later that Catherine discovered the two in an embrace. On a few occasions before the situation risked getting completely out of hand, according to the deposition of Kat Ashley, Catherine appears not only to have acquiesced in episodes of horseplay, but actually to have assisted her husband. Whatever actually happened, Elizabeth was sent away in May 1548 to stay with Sir Anthony Denny's household at Cheshunt and never saw her beloved stepmother again, although the two corresponded. Elizabeth immediately wrote a letter to the queen and Seymour after she left Chelsea. The letter demonstrates a sort of remorse. Kat Ashley, whose deposition was given after Catherine had died and Seymour had been arrested for another attempt at marrying Lady Elizabeth, had developed a crush on Seymour during her time at Chelsea and encouraged her charge to "play along". At one point she even made a comment at how lucky Elizabeth would have been to have a husband like Seymour. Ashley even told Lady Elizabeth that Seymour had confided his sentiments to her of wanting to marry Elizabeth before Catherine. After Catherine's death, Ashley strongly encouraged Elizabeth to write to Seymour offering her condolences; to "comfort him of his sorrow...for he would think great kindness therein." In June 1548, Catherine, accompanied by Lady Jane Grey, moved to Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire. The dowager queen promised to provide education for her. It was there that Catherine would spend the last few months of her pregnancy and the last summer of her life. Catherine gave birth to her only child, a daughter, Mary Seymour, named after Catherine's stepdaughter Mary, on 30 August 1548. Catherine died on 5 September 1548, at Sudeley Castle, from what is thought to have been "childbed fever". This illness was common due to the lack of hygiene around childbirth. Catherine's funeral was held on 7 September 1548. It was the first Protestant funeral held in English. Her chief mourner was Lady Jane Grey. She was buried in St. Mary's Chapel on the grounds of Sudeley Castle, Gloucestershire, England. Thomas Seymour was beheaded for treason on 20 March 1549 and Mary Seymour was taken to live with the Dowager Duchess of Suffolk, a close friend of Catherine's. Catherine's other jewels were kept in a coffer with five drawers at Sudeley and this was sent to the Tower of London on 20 April 1549, and her clothes and papers followed in May. After a year and a half, on 17 March 1550, Mary's property was restored to her by the Restitution of Mary Seymour Act 1549 (3 & 4 Edw. 6. c. 14), easing the burden of the infant's household on the duchess. The last mention of Mary Seymour on record is on her second birthday, and although stories circulated that she eventually married and had children, most historians believe she died as a child at Grimsthorpe Castle in Lincolnshire.

Cato the Younger (Roman Empire)

Act I, Scene i, Line ? makes a reference to "Cato's daughter":

Her name is Portia, nothing undervalued
To Cato’s daughter, Brutus' Portia.

— Act I, Scene i, Line?

Cato the Younger was an influential conservative Roman senator during the late Republic. His conservative principles were focused on the preservation of what he saw as old Roman values in decline. A noted orator and a follower of Stoicism, his scrupulous honesty and professed respect for tradition gave him a powerful political following which he mobilised against powerful generals of his day, including Julius Caesar and Pompey. He was the father of Porcia and uncle of Marcus Junius Brutus, the most famous of Julius Caesar's assassins, for whom his daughter Porcia is best known for being the second wife.

Colchis (Greek Mythology)

Act I, Scene i, Line 173 makes a reference to "Colchos' strand":

"Nor is the wide world ignorant of her worth,
For the four winds blow in from every coast
Renownèd suitors, and her sunny locks
Hang on her temples like a golden fleece,
Which makes her seat of Belmont Colchos' strand,

And many Jasons come in quest of her.

— Act I, Scene i, Lines 169-174

In classical antiquity and Greco-Roman geography, Colchis was an exonym for the Georgian polity of Egrisi located on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, centered in present-day western Georgia. In Greek mythology it was a fabulously wealthy land situated on the mysterious periphery of the heroic world, and known as the destination of the Argonauts as well as the home of Aeëtes, Medea, the Golden Fleece, the fire-breathing Colchis bulls, and where the mythological Prometheus was punished by being chained to a mountain while an eagle ate at his liver for revealing to humanity the secret of fire.

Common English Proverbs (Contemporary)

Act II, Scene v, Line ? makes reference to "Fast bind, fast find":

Fast bind, fast find.
A proverb never stale in thrifty mind.

— Act II, Scene v, Line ?

This proverb is quoted in "The thyrde chapiter" of John Heywood's 1562 edition of "A Dialogue of Proverbs" (structured as rhyming couplets) composed in 1546: "Tyme is tyckell. and out of syght out of mynde. / Than catch and hold while I may. fast bind fast fynde."

Act II, Scene ix, Line ? makes reference to "Hanging and wiving goes by destiny":

The ancient saying is no heresy.
Hanging and wiving goes by destiny.

— Act II, Scene ix, Line ?

This proverb is quoted in "The thyrde chapiter" of John Heywood's 1562 edition of "A Dialogue of Proverbs" (structured as rhyming couplets) composed in 1546:: "Be it far or ny, weddyng is desteny, / And hangyng lykewise, sayth that prouerbe, sayd I." This proverb means that finding a wife - like one's ultimate fate - is an aspect of life that is in the hands of the gods.

2 Corinthians 12:9 (Christian Scripture)

Act II, Scene ii, Line ? makes reference to "the grace of God", and Line ? to "enough":

The old proverb is very well parted between my master Shylock and you, sir—you have “the grace of God,” sir, and he hath “enough.”

— Act II, Scene ii, Line ?

The Second Letter of Paul to the Corinthians is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and a co-author named Timothy, and is addressed to the church in Corinth and Christians in the surrounding province of Achaea, in modern-day Greece. According to Jerome, Titus was the amanuensis of this epistle. The King James Bible version of the verse is: "⁹ And he said unto me, My grace is sufficient for thee: for my strength is made perfect in weakness. Most gladly therefore will I rather glory in my infirmities, that the power of Christ may rest upon me."

The Cumaean Sibyl (Roman Mythology)

Act I, Scene ii, Line ? makes reference to "Sibylla":

If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will.

— Act I, Scene ii, Line ?

The Cumaean Sibyl was the priestess presiding over the Apollonian oracle at Cumae, a Greek colony near Naples, Italy. The word sibyl comes (via Latin) from the ancient Greek word sibylla, meaning prophetess. There were many sibyls throughout the ancient world. Because of the importance of the Cumaean Sibyl in the legends of early Rome (as codified in Virgil's Aeneid VI), and because of her proximity to Rome, the Cumaean Sibyl became the most famous among the Romans. According to Ovid's Metamorphoses, despite being a mortal, the Sibyl lived about a thousand years. She attained this longevity when Apollo offered to grant her a wish in exchange for her virginity; she took a handful of sand and asked to live for as many years as the grains of sand she held. Later, after she refused the god's love, he allowed her body to wither away because she failed to ask for eternal youth.

Cupid (Roman Mythology)

Act II, Scene vi, Line ? makes reference to "Cupid himself":

But love is blind, and lovers cannot see

The pretty follies that themselves commit,
For if they could Cupid himself would blush

To see me thus transformèd to a boy.

— Act II, Scene vi, Line ?

Act II, Scene ix, Line 100 makes reference to "Quick Cupid’s post":

Come, come, Nerissa, for I long to see
Quick Cupid’s post that comes so mannerly.

— Act II, Scene vi, Lines 99-100

Act II, Scene ix, Line ? makes reference to "Lord Love":

Bassanio, Lord Love, if thy will it be!

— Act II, Scene vi, Line ?

In classical mythology, Cupid is the god of desire, erotic love, attraction and affection. He is often portrayed as the son of the love goddess Venus and the god of war Mars. His Greek counterpart is Eros. Although Eros is generally portrayed as a slender winged youth in Classical Greek art, during the Hellenistic period, he was increasingly portrayed as a chubby boy. Cupid continued to be a popular figure in the Middle Ages, when under Christian influence he often had a dual nature as Heavenly and Earthly love. In the Renaissance, a renewed interest in classical philosophy endowed him with complex allegorical meanings.

David II of Scotland (Papal Divorce Anulment)

Act II, Scene v, Line ? makes reference to "at six o'clock i' th' morning falling out that year on Ash Wednesday was four year in th' afternoon":

I will not say you shall see a masque, but if you do then it was not for nothing that my nose fell a-bleeding on Black Monday last at six o'clock i' th' morning falling out that year on Ash Wednesday was four year in th' afternoon.

— Act II, Scene v, Line ?

King David II of Scotland married twice and had several mistresses, but none of his relationships produced children. Joan of the Tower, the daughter of King Edward II of England and Isabella of France, was David's first wife. David and Joan were married on 17 July 1328, when he was four years old and she was seven. The marriage was in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Northampton. They were married for 34 years but produced no children. Queen Joan died on 7 September 1362 (aged 41) at Hertford Castle, Hertfordshire. Margaret Drummond was the widow of Sir John Logie, and daughter of Sir Malcolm Drummond. Margaret was David's mistress before the death of Queen Joan, from about 1361. David and Margaret married on 20 February 1364, 6 days before Ash Wednesday that year, and four years after Black Monday, when a freak hail storm killed an estimated 1,000 Englishmen besieging Chartres as part of the 100 Years' War. Still producing no heirs, David attempted to divorce Margaret on 20 March 1370, on the grounds that she was infertile. Pope Urban V, however, reversed the divorce. When David died on 22 February 1371, Margaret and David were still actually married, according to Rome. Margaret died sometime after 31 January 1375, and her funeral was paid for by Pope Gregory XI.

Diana (Greek Goddess)

Act I, Scene ii, Line ? makes reference to "Diana":

If I live to be as old as Sibylla, I will die as chaste as Diana unless I be obtained by the manner of my father’s will.

— Act I, Scene ii, Line ?

Diana is a goddess in Roman and Hellenistic religion, primarily considered a patroness of the countryside and nature, hunters, wildlife, childbirth, crossroads, the night, and the Moon. She is equated with the Greek goddess Artemis, and absorbed much of Artemis' mythology early in Roman history, including a birth on the island of Delos to parents Jupiter and Latona, and a twin brother, Apollo, though she had an independent origin in Italy. She is considered a virgin goddess and protector of childbirth. The celestial character of Diana is reflected in her connection with inaccessibility, virginity, light, and her preference for dwelling on high mountains and in sacred woods. Plato gave Diana a three-form aspect to her central characteristic of virginity: the undefiled, the mundane, and the anagogic. Through the first form, Diana is regarded as a "lover of virginity". Through the second, she is the guardian of virtue. Through the third, she is considered to "hate the impulses arising from generation." Through the principle of the undefiled, the 19th century Platonist scholar Thomas Taylor suggests that she is given supremacy in Proclus' triad of life-giving or animating deities, and in this role the theurgists called her Hekate. In this role, Diana is granted undefiled power (Amilieti) from the other gods. This generative power does not proceed forth from the goddess (according to a statement by the Oracle of Delphi) but rather resides with her, giving her unparalleled virtue, and in this way she can be said to embody virginity.

The Fates (Greek Mythology)

Act II, Scene ii, Line ? makes reference to "Fates and Destinies", and Line ? makes reference to "the Sisters Three":

Talk not of Master Launcelot, Father, for the young gentleman, according to Fates and Destinies and such odd sayings, the Sisters Three and such branches of learning, is indeed deceased, or as you would say in plain terms, gone to heaven.

— Act II, Scene ii, Line ?

The Fates are a common motif in European polytheism, most frequently represented as a trio of goddesses. The Fates shape the destiny of each human, often expressed in textile metaphors such as spinning fibers into yarn, or weaving threads on a loom. The trio are generally conceived of as sisters and are often given the names Clotho, Lachesis, and Atropos, who are known collectively as the Moirai, the version of the Fates who appear in Greek mythology. These divine figures are often artistically depicted as beautiful maidens with consideration to their serious responsibility: the life of mortals. Poets, on the other hand, typically express the Fates as ugly and unwavering, representing the gravity of their role within the mythological and human worlds.

Fortune (Roman Mythology)

Act II, Scene ii, Line ? makes reference to "if Fortune be a woman":

"Well, if Fortune be a woman, she’s a good wench for this gear."

— Act II, Scene ii, Line ?

Act II, Scene iv, Line ? makes reference to "never dare Misfortune cross her foot":

And never dare Misfortune cross her foot

Unless she do it under this excuse:

That she is issue to a faithless Jew.

— Act II, Scene iv, Line ?

Fortuna or Fortune (equivalent to the Greek goddess Tyche) is the goddess of fortune and the personification of luck in Roman religion who, largely thanks to the Late Antique author Boethius, remained popular through the Middle Ages until at least the Renaissance. The blindfolded depiction of her is still an important figure in many aspects of today's Italian culture, where the dichotomy fortuna / sfortuna (luck / unluck) plays a prominent role in everyday social life, also represented by the very common refrain "La [dea] fortuna è cieca" (latin Fortuna caeca est; "Luck [goddess] is blind"). Fortuna did not disappear from the popular imagination with the ascendancy of Christianity. Saint Augustine took a stand against her continuing presence, in the City of God: "How, therefore, is she good, who without discernment comes to both the good and to the bad?...It profits one nothing to worship her if she is truly fortune... let the bad worship her...this supposed deity". In the 6th century, the Consolation of Philosophy, by statesman and philosopher Boethius, written while he faced execution, reflected the Christian theology of casus, that the apparently random and often ruinous turns of Fortune's Wheel are in fact both inevitable and providential, that even the most coincidental events are part of God's hidden plan which one should not resist or try to change. Fortuna, then, was a servant of God, and events, individual decisions, the influence of the stars were all merely vehicles of Divine Will. In succeeding generations Boethius' Consolation was required reading for scholars and students. Fortune crept back into popular acceptance, with a new iconographic trait, "two-faced Fortune", Fortuna bifrons; such depictions continue into the 15th century. The ubiquitous image of the Wheel of Fortune found throughout the Middle Ages and beyond was a direct legacy of the second book of Boethius's Consolation. The Wheel appears in many renditions from tiny miniatures in manuscripts to huge stained glass windows in cathedrals, such as at Amiens. Lady Fortune is usually represented as larger than life to underscore her importance. The wheel characteristically has four shelves, or stages of life, with four human figures, usually labeled on the left regnabo (I shall reign), on the top regno (I reign) and is usually crowned, descending on the right regnavi (I have reigned) and the lowly figure on the bottom is marked sum sine regno (I have no kingdom). Medieval representations of Fortune emphasize her duality and instability, such as two faces side by side like Janus; one face smiling the other frowning; half the face white the other black; she may be blindfolded but without scales, blind to justice. She was associated with the cornucopia, ship's rudder, the ball and the wheel. The cornucopia is where plenty flows from, the Helmsman's rudder steers fate, the globe symbolizes chance (who gets good or bad luck), and the wheel symbolizes that luck, good or bad, never lasts. Shakespeare also refers to her in Sonnet 29.

Genoa, Italy (Geographic Region)

Act III, Scene i, Line ? makes reference to "from Genoa":

How now, Tubal? What news from Genoa? Hast thou found my daughter?

— Act III, Scene i, Line ?

Genoa is a city in, and the capital of, the Italian region of Liguria approximately 180 miles (290 km) as the crow flies by land to the west-by-southwest of Venice . Situated on the Gulf of Genoa in the Ligurian Sea, Genoa has historically been one of the most important ports on the Mediterranean. Genoa was the capital of one of the most powerful maritime republics for over seven centuries, from the 11th century to 1797. Particularly from the 12th century to the 15th century, the city played a leading role in the commercial trade in Europe, becoming one of the largest naval powers of the continent and considered among the wealthiest cities in the world. The city's solid financial sector dates back to the Middle Ages. The Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, is the oldest known state deposit bank in the world and has played an important role in the city's prosperity since the middle of the 15th century. Genoa is also home to the University of Genoa, which has a history going back to the 15th century, when it was known as Genuense Athenaeum. It is the birthplace of Guglielmo Embriaco, Christopher Columbus, Andrea Doria, Niccolò Paganini, Giuseppe Mazzini, Renzo Piano and Grimaldo Canella (founder in 1160 of the House of Grimaldi, which became the reigning house of the Principality of Monaco when Francesco Grimaldi captured Monaco in 1297), among others. Genoa started expanding during the First Crusade. At the time the city had a population of about 10,000. Twelve galleys, one ship and 1,200 soldiers from Genoa joined the crusade. The Genoese troops, led by noblemen de Insula and Avvocato, set sail in July 1097. The Genoese fleet transported and provided naval support to the crusaders, mainly during the siege of Antioch in 1098, when the Genoese fleet blockaded the city while the troops provided support during the siege. In the siege of Jerusalem in 1099 Genoese crossbowmen led by Guglielmo Embriaco acted as support units against the defenders of the city. The Republic's role as a maritime power in the Mediterranean region secured many favorable commercial treaties for Genoese merchants. They came to control a large portion of the trade of the Byzantine Empire, Tripoli (Libya), the Principality of Antioch, Cilician Armenia, and Egypt. Although Genoa maintained free-trading rights in Egypt and Syria, it lost some of its territorial possessions after Saladin's campaigns in those areas in the late 12th century. The commercial and cultural rivalry of Genoa and Venice was played out through the thirteenth century. Thanks to the major role played by the Republic of Venice in the Fourth Crusade, Venetian trading rights were enforced in the eastern Mediterranean and Venice was able to gain control of a large portion of maritime commerce in the region. To regain control of local commerce, the Republic of Genoa allied with Michael VIII Palaiologos, emperor of Nicaea, who wanted to restore the Byzantine Empire by recapturing Constantinople. In March 1261 the treaty of the alliance was signed in Nymphaeum. On 25 July 1261, Nicaean troops under Alexios Strategopoulos recaptured Constantinople. As a result, the balance of favour tipped toward Genoa, which was granted free trade rights in the Nicene Empire. The islands of Chios and Lesbos became commercial stations of Genoa as well as the city of Smyrna (Izmir). In the same century the Republic conquered many settlements in Crimea, known as Gazaria, where the Genoese colony of Caffa was established. The alliance with the restored Byzantine Empire increased the wealth and power of Genoa, and simultaneously decreased Venetian and Pisan commerce. The Byzantine Empire had granted the majority of free trading rights to Genoa. As a result of the Genoese support to the Aragonese rule in Sicily, Genoa was granted free trading and export rights in the Kingdom. Genoese bankers also profited from loans to the new nobility of Sicily. Corsica was formally annexed in 1347. In the 15th century two of the earliest banks in the world were founded in Genoa: the Bank of Saint George, founded in 1407, which was the oldest state deposit bank in the world at its closure in 1805 and the Banca Carige, founded in 1483 as a mount of piety, which still exists. Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa c. 1451, and donated one-tenth of his income from the discovery of the Americas for Spain to the Bank of Saint George in Genoa for the relief of taxation on foods. Under the ensuing economic recovery, many aristocratic Genoese families, such as the Balbi, Doria, Grimaldi, Pallavicini, and Serra, amassed tremendous fortunes. According to Felipe Fernandez-Armesto and others, the practices Genoa developed in the Mediterranean (such as chattel slavery) were crucial in the exploration and exploitation of the New World. Thereafter, Genoa underwent something of an associate of the Spanish Empire, with Genoese bankers, in particular, financing many of the Spanish crown's foreign endeavors from their counting houses in Seville. Fernand Braudel has even called the period 1557 to 1627 the "age of the Genoese", "of a rule that was so discreet and sophisticated that historians for a long time failed to notice it" (Braudel 1984 p. 157). The Genoese bankers provided the unwieldy Habsburg system with fluid credit and a dependably regular income. In return the less dependable shipments of American silver were rapidly transferred from Seville to Genoa, to provide capital for further ventures. Genoa's trade, however, remained closely dependent on control of Mediterranean sealanes, and the loss of Chios to the Ottoman Empire (1566), struck a severe blow. To help cope, Panama in the Americas was given as concession from the Spanish Empire to Genoa. The Genoese there encountered coconuts from the Philippines planted there by Malay seafarers before Spain came.

The Golden Fleece (Greek Mythology)

Act I, Scene i, Line 172 makes a reference to "like a golden fleece":

"Nor is the wide world ignorant of her worth,
For the four winds blow in from every coast
Renownèd suitors, and her sunny locks
Hang on her temples like a golden fleece,
Which makes her seat of Belmont Colchos' strand,

And many Jasons come in quest of her.

— Act I, Scene i, Lines 169-174

In Greek mythology, the Golden Fleece is the fleece of the golden-woolled, winged ram, Chrysomallos, that rescued Phrixus and brought him to Colchis, where Phrixus then sacrificed it to Zeus. Phrixus preserved the fleece and gave it to King Aeëtes, who kept it hung on an oak tree in a grove sacred to Ares (the Greek God of War) and guarded by a never-sleeping dragon, whence Jason and the Argonauts stole it with the help of Medea, Aeëtes' daughter. The fleece is a symbol of authority and kingship. In the historical account, the hero Jason and his crew of Argonauts set out on a quest for the fleece by order of King Pelias in order to place Jason rightfully on the throne of Iolcus in Thessaly.

The Goodwin Sands (Geographic Region)

Act III, Scene i, Line ? makes reference to "The Goodwins":

The Goodwins I think they call the place—a very dangerous flat, and fatal, where the carcasses of many a tall ship lie buried, as they say, if my gossip report be an honest woman of her word.

— Act III, Scene i, Line ?

The Goodwin Sands are a 10-mile-long (16 km) sandbank at the southern end of the North Sea lying 6 miles (10 km) off the Deal coast in Kent, England. The area consists of a layer of approximately 25 m (82 ft) depth of fine sand resting on an Upper Chalk platform belonging to the same geological feature that incorporates the White Cliffs of Dover. The banks lie between 0.5 m (1 ft 8 in) above the low water mark to around 3 m (10 ft) below low water, except for one channel that drops to around 20 m (66 ft) below. Tides and currents are constantly shifting the shoals. More than 2,000 ships are believed to have been wrecked upon the Goodwin Sands because they lie close to the major shipping lanes through the Straits of Dover. The few miles between the sands and the coast is also a safe anchorage, known as The Downs, used as a refuge from foul weather. Due to the dangers, the area—which also includes Brake Bank—is marked by numerous lightvessels and buoys. The Sands' first known depiction on a navigational chart was by Lucas Janszoon Wagenaer in 1583. Shakespeare also mentions Goodwin Sands in Act V, Scene v of King John:

MESSENGER
The Count Melun is slain; the English Lords
By his persuasion are again fall'n off,
And your supply, which you have wish'd so long,
Are cast away and sunk on Goodwin Sands.

Hagar (Christian Scripture)

Act II, Scene v, Line ? makes reference to "that fool of Hagar’s offspring":

What says that fool of Hagar’s offspring, ha?

— Act II, Scene v, Line ?

According to the Book of Genesis, Hagar was an Egyptian slave, a handmaiden of Sarah (then known as Sarai), whom Sarah gave to her own husband Abram (later renamed Abraham) as a wife to bear him a child. Abraham's firstborn son, through Hagar, Ishmael, became the progenitor of the Ishmaelites, generally taken to be the Arabs. Various commentators have connected her to the Hagrites (sons of Agar), perhaps claiming her as their eponymous ancestor. Hagar is alluded to, although not named, in the Quran, and Islam considers her Abraham's second wife. Sarai had been barren for a long time and sought a way to fulfill God's promise that Abram would be father of many nations, especially since they had grown old, so she offered Hagar to Abram to be his concubine. Hagar became pregnant, and tension arose between the two women. Genesis states that Sarai despised Hagar after she had conceived and "looked with contempt" on her. Sarai, with Abraham's permission, eventually dealt harshly with Hagar and so she fled. Hagar fled into the desert on her way to Shur. At a spring en route, an angel appeared to Hagar, who instructed her to return to Sarai and submit to her mistress. Then she was told to call her son Ishmael. Afterward, Hagar referred to God as "El Roi" (variously "god of sight"; "god saw me"; "god who appears"). She then returned to Abram and Sarai, and soon gave birth to a son, whom she named as the angel had instructed. A BBC article states:

The reason for the Muslim presence in England stemmed from Queen Elizabeth's isolation from Catholic Europe. Her official excommunication by Pope Pius V in 1570 allowed her to act outside the papal edicts forbidding Christian trade with Muslims and create commercial and political alliances with various Islamic states, including the Moroccan Sa'adian dynasty, the Ottoman Empire and the Shi'a Persian Empire.She sent her diplomats and merchants into the Muslim world to exploit this theological loophole, and in return Muslims began arriving in London, variously described as "Moors", "Indians", "Negroes" and "Turks".Before Elizabeth's reign, England - like the rest of Christendom - understood a garbled version of Islam mainly through the bloody and polarised experiences of the Crusades.No Christian even knew the words "Islam" or "Muslim", which only entered the English language in the 17th Century. Instead they spoke of "Saracens", a name considered in medieval times to have been taken from one of Abraham's offspring (with the servant Hagar) who was believed to have founded the original twelve Arab tribes.

Hamza Mirza (Persian Empire)

Act II, Scene i, Line 25 makes reference to "a Persian prince":

By this scimitar

That slew the Sophy and a Persian prince
That won three fields of Sultan Solyman,
I would o'erstare the sternest eyes that look,
Outbrave the heart most daring on the earth,
Pluck the young sucking cubs from the she-bear,
Yea, mock the lion when he roars for prey,

To win the lady.

— Act II, Scene i, Lines 24-31

Hamza Mirza was the Safavid crown prince of Iran during the reign of his father Mohammad Khodabanda (r. 1578–1587). Khodabanda's reign was marked by a continued weakness of the crown and tribal infighting as part of the second civil war of the Safavid era. He has been described as "a man of refined tastes but weak character". As a result, Khodabanda's reign was characterised by factionalism, with major tribes aligning themselves with Khodabanda's sons and future heirs. The powerful factions of the Qizilbash tribes increasingly came to dominate Iran, and in 1583 they forced the shah to hand over his vizier, Mirza Salman Jaberi, for execution. The young Hamza Mirza subsequently took over the reins of state. The internal chaos, however, also allowed foreign powers, especially the rivalling and neighboring Ottoman Empire, to make territorial gains, including the conquest of the old capital of Tabriz in 1585. Khodabanda sent Hamza Mirza to fight the Ottomans, but on 6 December 1586 the young prince was murdered in mysterious circumstances during this campaign, and the city remained in Ottoman hands for the next 20 years.

Heracles (Greek Mythology)

Act II, Scene i, Line ? makes reference to "Hercules":

If Hercules and Lychas play at dice

Which is the better man, the greater throw

May turn by fortune from the weaker hand.

— Act II, Scene i, Line ?

Act II, Scene i, Line 35 makes reference to "Alcides":

So is Alcides beaten by his page,

And so may I, blind fortune leading me,
Miss that which one unworthier may attain

And die with grieving."

— Act II, Scene i, Lines 35-38

Heracles (born Alcaeus or Alcides), was a divine hero in Greek mythology, the son of Zeus and Alcmene, and the foster son of Amphitryon. He was a descendant and half-brother (as they are both sired by the god Zeus) of Perseus. He was the greatest of the Greek heroes, the ancestor of royal clans who claimed to be Heracleidae (Ἡρακλεῖδαι), and a champion of the Olympian order against chthonic monsters. In Rome and the modern West, he is known as Hercules, with whom the later Roman emperors, in particular Commodus and Maximian, often identified themselves. Extraordinary strength, courage, ingenuity, and sexual prowess with both males and females were among the characteristics commonly attributed to him. Heracles used his wits on several occasions when his strength did not suffice, such as when laboring for the king Augeas of Elis, wrestling the giant Antaeus, or tricking Atlas into taking the sky back onto his shoulders. By conquering dangerous archaic forces he is said to have "made the world safe for mankind" and to be its benefactor. Heracles was an extremely passionate and emotional individual, capable of doing both great deeds for his friends (such as wrestling with Thanatos on behalf of Prince Admetus, who had regaled Heracles with his hospitality, or restoring his friend Tyndareus to the throne of Sparta after he was overthrown) and being a terrible enemy who would wreak horrible vengeance on those who crossed him, as Augeas, Neleus, and Laomedon all found out to their cost. There was also a coldness to his character, which was demonstrated by Sophocles' depiction of the hero in The Trachiniae. Heracles threatened his marriage with his desire to bring two women under the same roof; one of them was his wife Deianeira. In the works of Euripides involving Heracles, his actions were partly driven by forces outside rational human control. By highlighting the divine causation of his madness, Euripides problematized Heracles' character and status within the civilized context. This aspect is also highlighted in Hercules Furens where Seneca linked the hero's madness to an illusion and a consequence of Heracles' refusal to live a simple life, as offered by Amphitryon. It was indicated that he preferred the extravagant violence of the heroic life and that its ghosts eventually manifested in his madness and that the hallucinatory visions defined Heracles' character. In a fit of madness induced by the goddess Hera (the wife of Zeus, who hated Heracles as with all of her husband's illegitimate progeny), Heracles killed his children and wife, Megara. After his madness had been cured with hellebore by Antikyreus, he realized what he had done and fled to the Oracle of Delphi. Unbeknownst to him, the Oracle was guided by Hera. He was directed to serve King Eurystheus for ten years and perform any task Eurystheus required of him. Eurystheus decided to give Heracles ten labours, but after completing them, Heracles was cheated by Eurystheus when he added two more, resulting in the Twelve Labors of Heracles. If he succeeded, he would be purified of his sin and, as myth says, he would become a god, and be granted immortality. The story “The Life of Romulus” in Plutarch’s Parallel Lives (a set of biographies of two characters, with a conclusion comparing each pair) - upon which Shakespeare drew for at least five plays - includes a prose passage about Hercules playing a game of dice with the guardian of his temple to win a feast, and a night in the company of a beautiful courtesan (Acca Larentia, who later became a Roman goddess of fertility).

The Holy Trinity (Christian Scripture)

.

Hyrcania (Geographic Region)

Act II, Scene vii, Line ? makes reference to "The Hyrcanian deserts":

The Hyrcanian deserts and the vasty wilds

Of wide Arabia are as thoroughfares now

For princes to come view fair Portia.

— Act II, Scene vii, Line ?

Hyrcania is a historical region composed of the land south-east of the Caspian Sea in modern-day Iran and Turkmenistan, bound in the south by the Alborz mountain range and the Kopet Dag in the east. The region served as a satrapy (province) of the Median Empire, a sub-province of the Achaemenid Empire, and a province within its successors, the Seleucid, Arsacid and Sasanian empires. Hyrcania bordered Parthia to the east (later known as Abarshahr), Dihistan to the north, Media to the south and Mardia to the west. Shakespeare, relying on his Latin sources, makes references in his other plays to the "Hyrcan tiger" (Macbeth, III.iv.1281) or "th' Hyrcanian beast" (Hamlet, II.ii.447) as an emblem of bloodthirsty cruelty, and in Henry VI, Part 3, the Duke of York compares Queen Margaret unfavorably to "Tygers of Hyrcania" (I.iv.622) for her inhumanity.

Pope Innocent IX (Holy Roman Empire)

The Dramatis Personae makes reference to "Antonio":

Antonio, a merchant of Venice

— Dramatis Personae

Pope Innocent IX (20 July 1519 – 30 December 1591), born Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti, was the 230th Catholic Pope. Like a number of Popes in this period, he was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States for a relatively short period (62 days)Template:Ufn:

• #217 Leo X reigned 9 March 1513 – 1 December 1521 / 8 years, 267 days (remembered for granting indulgences to those who donated to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica; in 1521 excommunicated Martin Luther; extended the Spanish Inquisition into Portugal; borrowed and spent money without circumspection and was a significant patron of the arts)

• #218 Adrian VI reigned 9 January 1522 – 14 September 1523 / 1 year, 248 days (the only Dutch pope; last non-Italian to be elected pope until John Paul II in 1978. Tutor of Emperor Charles V; came to the papacy in the midst of one of its greatest crises, threatened not only by Lutheranism to the north but also by the advance of the Ottoman Turks to the east; refused to compromise with Lutheranism theologically, demanding Luther's condemnation as a heretic; noted, however, for having attempted to reform the Catholic Church administratively in response to the Protestant Reformation; his remarkable admission that the turmoil of the Church was the fault of the Roman Curia itself was read at the 1522–1523 Diet of Nuremberg; his efforts at reform, however, proved fruitless, as they were resisted by most of his Renaissance ecclesiastical contemporaries, and he did not live long enough to see his efforts through to their conclusion)

• #219 Clement VII reigned 26 November 1523 – 25 September 1534 / 10 years, 303 days (forbade the divorce of Henry VIII; in 1533 his niece was married to the future Henry II of France)

• #220 Paul III reigned 13 October 1534 – 10 November 1549 / 15 years, 28 days (in 1545 opened the Council of Trent; his illegitimate son became the first duke of Parma; decreed the second and final excommunication of King Henry VIII of England; recognized the Order of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits))

• #221 Julius III reigned 7 February 1550 – 29 March 1555 / 5 years, 50 days (reconvened the Council of Trent; The Innocenzo Scandal)

• #222 Marcellus II reigned 9 April 1555 – 1 May 1555 / 22 days (instituted immediate economies in Vatican expenditures)

• #223 Paul IV reigned 23 May 1555 – 18 August 1559 / 4 years, 87 days (in 1555 established the Roman Ghetto in Cum Nimis Absurdum; established the Index of Forbidden Books)

• #224 Pius IV reigned 26 December 1559 – 9 December 1565 / 5 years, 348 days (reopened and closed the Council of Trent; instituted the Tridentine Creed)

• #225 St Pius V reigned 7 January 1566 – 1 May 1572 / 6 years, 115 days (in 1570 excommunicated Queen Elizabeth I of England; battle of Lepanto 1571; issued the 1570 Roman Missal)

• #226 Gregory XIII reigned 13 May 1572 – 10 April 1585 / 12 years, 332 days (in 1582 reformed the calendar; strengthened diplomatic ties with Asian nations)

• #227 Sixtus V reigned 24 April 1585 – 27 August 1590 / 5 years, 125 days

• #228 Urban VII reigned 15 September 1590 – 27 September 1590 / 12 days (supported by the Spanish; shortest-reigning pope; died before coronation)

• #229 Gregory XIV reigned 5 December 1590 – 16 October 1591 / 315 days

• #230 Innocent IX reigned 29 October 1591 – 30 December 1591 / 62 days (supported the cause of King Philip II of Spain and the Catholic League against King Henry IV of France in the French Wars of Religion)

• #231 Clement VIII reigned 30 January 1592 – 3 March 1605 / 13 years, 32 days (in 1595 initiated an alliance of European Christian powers to partake in the war with the Ottoman Empire known as The Long War)

• #232 Leo XI reigned 1 April 1605 – 27 April 1605 / 26 days

• #233 Paul V reigned 16 May 1605 – 28 January 1621 / 15 years, 257 days (during his pontificate Galileo's scientific contributions caused difficulties for theologians and natural philosophers of the time, as they contradicted scientific and philosophical ideas based on those of Aristotle and Ptolemy and closely associated with the Catholic Church at that time, although not all Catholic priests at the time were against Galileo's discoveries)

• #234 Gregory XV reigned 9 February 1621 – 8 July 1623 / 2 years, 149 days (in 1621 issued the bull Aeterni Patris which imposed conclaves to be by secret ballot)

• #235 Urban VIII reigned 6 August 1623 – 29 July 1644 / 20 years, 358 days (trial against Galileo Galilei; last pope to expand papal territory by force of arms)

As papal legate to Venice, he had helped negotiate the formation of the Holy League, an alliance of Spanish and Italian maritime powers to challenge the Ottoman Empire’s control of the eastern Mediterranean, and which resulted in victory at the Battle of Lepanto. In 1560, Facchinetti was named as the Bishop of Nicastro, in Calabria, and in 1562 was present at the Council of Trent. He was the first bishop to actually reside in the diocese in three decades. Pope Pius V (1566–1572) sent him as papal nuncio to Venice in 1566 to further the papal alliance with Spain and Venice against the Turks, which ultimately resulted in the victory of Lepanto in 1571. He was recalled from Venice in 1572 and was made the Prior Commendatario of Sant'Andrea di Carmignano in the diocese of Padua from 1576 to 1587. Even before his predecessor (Pope Gregory XIV) died, Spanish and anti-Spanish factions were electioneering for the next pope. Philip II of Spain's (r. 1556–1598) high-handed interference at the previous conclave was not forgotten: he had barred all but seven cardinals. This time the Spanish party in the College of Cardinals did not go so far, but they still controlled a majority, and after a quick conclave they raised Facchinetti to the papal chair as Pope Innocent IX. It took three ballots to elect him as pope. Facchinetti received 24 votes on 28 October but was not successful. He received 28 votes on 29 October in the second ballot while the third saw him prevail. Mindful of the origin of his success, Innocent IX supported, during his two months' pontificate, the cause of Philip II and the Catholic League against Henry IV of France (r. 1589–1610) in the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598), where a Papal army was in the field. His grandnephew Giovanni Antonio Cardinal Facchinetti de Nuce, Jr., was one of two cardinals appointed during the weeks of Innocent IX's pontificate. A later member of the cardinalate was his great-grandnephew Cesare Facchinetti (made a cardinal in 1643). Facchinetti took his papal name to honor Pope Innocent III (22 February 1161 – 16 July 1216), who had been the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States for some 18 years (from 8 January 1198 until his death on 16 July 1216). Innocent III was one of the most powerful and influential of the medieval popes. He exerted a wide influence over the Christian states of Europe, claiming supremacy over all of Europe's kings. He was central in supporting the Catholic Church's reforms of ecclesiastical affairs through his decretals and the Fourth Lateran Council. This resulted in a considerable refinement of Western canon law. He is furthermore notable for using interdict and other censures to compel princes to obey his decisions, although these measures were not uniformly successful. Innocent III greatly extended the scope of the Crusades, directing crusades against Muslim Iberia and the Holy Land as well as the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He organized the Fourth Crusade of 1202–1204, which ended in the sack of Constantinople. Although the attack on Constantinople went against his explicit orders, and the Crusaders were subsequently excommunicated, Innocent reluctantly accepted this result, seeing it as the will of God to reunite the Latin and Eastern Orthodox Churches. In the event, the sack of Constantinople and the subsequent period of Frankokratia heightened the hostility between the Latin and Greek churches; the Byzantine Empire was restored in 1261, albeit in a much weaker state.

Jacob and Laban (Christian and Jewish Scripture)

Act I, Scene iii, Lines 69-86 make references to Jacob and Laban:

When Jacob grazed his uncle Laban’s sheep—

This Jacob from our holy Abram was,
As his wise mother wrought in his behalf,
The third possessor, ay, he was the third—
...
Mark what Jacob did:
When Laban and himself were compromised
That all the eanlings which were streaked and pied
Should fall as Jacob’s hire, the ewes, being rank,
In the end of autumn turnèd to the rams.
And when the work of generation was
Between these woolly breeders in the act,
The skillful shepherd peeled me certain wands.
And in the doing of the deed of kind
He stuck them up before the fulsome ewes,
Who then conceiving did in eaning time

Fall parti-colored lambs—and those were Jacob’s.

— Act I, Scene iii, Lines 69-86

In the Christian Bible and Jewish Torah, Jacob was the son of Isaac (eldest son of Abraham and Sarah) and Rebekah, and the younger twin to his brother Esau, while Laban was Rebekah's brother (and thus Jacob's uncle), and father to Leah and Rachel. Jacob had bought the birthright from his elder brother Esau, and, with the help of his mother, had subsequently tricked his by then blind father, Isaac, into giving him his blessing - which should have gone to his elder brother Esau; in so doing, Jacob thus became the third possessor of Abraham's lineage (Abraham-Isaac-Jacob). Unlike his brother, Jacob remained unmarried until late in life, eventually deciding (at his mother's insistence) to marry his cousin, Laban's younger daughter Rachel. Laban agrees on condition that Jacob first give him seven years' free service tending his flocks. However, at the end of those seven years, Laban tricks Jacob into marrying his elder daughter, Leah. Jacob then agrees to a further seven years' free service in order to also marry Rachel as originally agreed. After so marrying Rachel, Laban wishes to keep Jacob on tending his flocks, and this time by way of payment agrees that Jacob can have all the part-coloured sheep and goats that he finds in his flocks - but once again Laban double-crosses Jacob by having his sons immediately separate out all such sheep and goats from the flocks, and pasture them several miles away. Jacob determines to redress this latest trick through a trick of his own: showing all the remaining sheep and goats some specially peeled wands while they are mating, so that they themselves yield part-coloured offspring. This does indeed come to pass, but the scripture gives conflicting explanations for this: it first states that it is because of the wands being displayed during the mating, before then stating that God had intervened to produce this outcome.

Janus (Roman God)

Act I, Scene i, Line 50 makes a reference to "two-headed Janus":

"Now, by two-headed Janus,

Nature hath framed strange fellows in her time:
Some that will evermore peep through their eyes
And laugh like parrots at a bag-piper,
And other of such vinegar aspect
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,

Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable."

— Act I, Scene i, Lines 50-56

Janus is the Roman God of beginnings, gates, transitions, time, duality, doorways, passages, frames, and endings. Specifically, he presided over the beginning and ending of conflict, with the gates of a building in Rome named after him being opened in time of war, and subsequently closed to mark the arrival of peace.  He is usually depicted as having two faces, and the month of January is named for Janus. He frequently symbolized change and transitions such as the progress of past to future, from one condition to another, from one vision to another, and young people's growth to adulthood. In the Middle Ages, Janus was taken as the symbol of Genoa, whose Medieval Latin name was Ianua, as well as of other European communes. The comune of Selvazzano di Dentro near Padua has a grove and an altar of Janus depicted on its standard, but their existence is unproven. In Act I Scene 2 of Shakespeare's Othello, Iago also invokes the name of Janus ("By Janus, I think no.") following the failure of his plot against the titular character. In her 1921 book The Witch-Cult in Western Europe, folklorist Margaret Murray claimed that evidence found in records of the early modern witch trials showed the witches' god, usually identified in the records as the Devil, was in fact often a male priest dressed in a double mask representing Janus. The vagueness of Janus's association with the cults of primitive Latium and his indifference towards the social composition of the Roman State suggest that he was a god of an earlier amphibious merchant society in which the role of the guardian god was indispensable.

Jason (Greek Mythology)

Act I, Scene i, Line 174 makes a reference to "many Jasons come in quest of her":

"Nor is the wide world ignorant of her worth,
For the four winds blow in from every coast
Renownèd suitors, and her sunny locks
Hang on her temples like a golden fleece,
Which makes her seat of Belmont Colchos' strand,

And many Jasons come in quest of her.

— Act I, Scene i, Lines 169-174

In Greek mythology, Jason was an ancient hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece is featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos, and was married to the sorceress Medea, the granddaughter of the sungod Helios. He was sent away as an infant by his mother to save him from his father's half-brother, Pelias, and was reared by the centaur Chiron. An oracle later warned Pelias - who had murdered Jason's father to gain control of the whole of Thessaly - to beware of a man wearing only one sandal. When the adult Jason arrived in Iolcos many years later - having lost one of his sandals in the river Anauros while helping an old woman (actually the goddess Hera in disguise) to cross - he lay claim to his throne. Pelias replied, "To take my throne, which you shall, you must go on a quest to find the Golden Fleece", confident that the dragon guarding the fleece would kill Jason. Jason readily accepted this condition. With the aid of Medea - the daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis - who Aphrodite (persuaded by Hera) had made to fall in love with Jason, he successfully obtained the fleece. On their eventual return to Iolcos, Medea tricked Pelias' daughters into killing their father, for which Acastus, Pelias' son, drove Jason and Medea into exile.

Sir Lancelot (Arthurian Legend)

The Dramatis Personae makes reference to "Launcelot Gobbo":

Launcelot Gobbo, the clown, servant to Shylock

— Dramatis Personae

Lancelot du Lac (French for Lancelot of the Lake), also written as Launcelot and other variants, is a character in some versions of Arthurian legend where he is typically depicted as King Arthur's close companion and one of the greatest Knights of the Round Table. In the French-inspired Arthurian chivalric romance tradition, Lancelot is an orphaned son of King Ban of the lost kingdom of Benoic, raised in a fairy realm by the Lady of the Lake. A hero of many battles, quests and tournaments, and famed as a nearly unrivalled swordsman and jouster, Lancelot becomes the lord of the castle Joyous Gard and personal champion of Arthur's wife, Queen Guinevere, despite suffering from frequent and sometimes prolonged fits of madness. But when his adulterous affair with Guinevere is discovered, it causes a civil war that, once exploited by Mordred, brings an end to Arthur's kingdom. Both loyal and treasonous, Lancelot has remained a popular character for centuries.

Lichas (Greek Mythology)

Act II, Scene i, Line ? makes reference to "Lychas":

If Hercules and Lychas play at dice

Which is the better man, the greater throw

May turn by fortune from the weaker hand.

— Act II, Scene i, Line ?

In Greek mythology, Lichas was Heracles' servant who unwittingly brought the poisoned shirt of Nessus from Deianira to him after Deianira became jealous of Iole - having been tricked by the dying Nessus into believing the shirt would reignite Heracles' passion for her - but which led to Heracles' eventual death when he put it on.

The Miracle of the [Gadarene] Swine (Christian Scripture)

Act I, Scene iii, Line ? makes reference to "the habitation which your prophet the Nazarite conjured the devil into":

Yes—to smell pork, to eat of the habitation which your prophet the Nazarite conjured the devil into.

— Act I, Scene iii, Line ?

The Miracle of the (Gadarene) Swine (also known as the exorcism of the Gerasene demoniac and the exorcism of Legion) is one of the miracles performed by Jesus according to the New Testament. The story tells of Jesus exorcising a demon or demons out of a man and into a herd of swine, causing the swine to run down a hill into a lake and drown themselves.

Nestor of Gerenia (Greek Mythology)

Act I, Scene i, Line 56 makes a reference to "Nestor":

"Now, by two-headed Janus,

Nature hath framed strange fellows in her time:
Some that will evermore peep through their eyes
And laugh like parrots at a bag-piper,
And other of such vinegar aspect
That they’ll not show their teeth in way of smile,

Though Nestor swear the jest be laughable."

— Act I, Scene i, Lines 50-56

Nestor of Gerenia was a legendary king of Pylos and one of the Argonauts, a band of heroes who accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. He is a prominent secondary character in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, where he appears as an elderly warrior who frequently offers long-winded advice to the other characters, including advising Agamemnon and Achilles to reconcile, and persuading Patroclus to disguise himself as Achilles. While his advice is frequently ineffective, he is never questioned and instead is frequently praised.

The Oracle at Delphi (Classical Greece)

Act I, Scene i, Line 95 makes a reference to "Sir Oracle":

There are a sort of men whose visages

Do cream and mantle like a standing pond,
And do a willful stillness entertain
With purpose to be dressed in an opinion
Of wisdom, gravity, profound conceit,
As who should say, “I am Sir Oracle,

And when I ope my lips, let no dog bark!”

— Act I, Scene i, Lines 90-96

The Oracle at Delphi (also known as Pythia) was the high priestess of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. She was widely credited for her prophecies uttered under divine possession (enthusiasmos) by Apollo, and was the most prestigious and authoritative oracle among the Greeks, making her among the most powerful women of the classical world.

Porcia (Roman Empire)

Act I, Scene i, Line ? makes a reference to "Cato’s daughter, Brutus' Portia":

Her name is Portia, nothing undervalued
To Cato’s daughter, Brutus' Portia.

— Act I, Scene i, Line?

Porcia was the daughter of the influential conservative Roman Senator, Cato the Younger. Plutarch describes her as being prime of youth and beauty, and she married her first cousin, Brutus, while she was still very young after he somewhat scandalously divorced his longstanding wife, Claudia, without reason, three years after Porcia's much older first husband, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, had died from influenza. Porcia reportedly loved Brutus deeply, and was utterly devoted to him: she resolved not to inquire into the secrets of her second husband - the most famous of Julius Caesar's assassins - before she had made a trial of herself and that she would bid defiance to pain in case she were ever subjected to torture. To demonstrate her resolve to her loyalty, Porcia injured her thigh with a barber's knife and left the wound untreated for a day. Brutus marveled when he saw the gash on her thigh and after hearing her describe what she had done, he no longer hid anything from her, but felt strengthened himself and promised to relate the whole plot. Brutus promised to share the "heavy secrets" of his heart with his wife but it is unclear if he ever got the chance. Some historians believe Porcia may have known about the plot, and may have even been involved in the conspiracy itself. She features as a minor character in another of Shakespeare's plays, Julius Caesar, believed written after The Merchant of Venice.

Psalms 12:6 (Christian Scripture)

Act II, Scene ix, Line 63 makes reference to "The fire seven times tried this":

The fire seven times tried this,

Seven times tried that judgment is,

That did never choose amiss.

— Act II, Scene ix, Lines 63-65

The King James Bible version of Psalms 12:6 refers to the words of God being as pure as silver that has been put through seven firings:

6 The words of the LORD are pure words: as silver tried in a furnace of earth, purified seven times.

— Psalms 12:6

The King James Bible version of the verse is: "⁶ The words of the LORD are pure words: as silver tried in a furnace of earth, purified seven times."

The Rialto (Venice)

Act I, Scene iii, Line ? makes reference to "the Rialto":

He hath an argosy bound to Tripolis, another to the Indies. I understand moreover, upon the Rialto, he hath a third at Mexico, a fourth for England, and other ventures he hath squandered abroad.

— Act I, Scene iii, Line ?

Act III, Scene i, Line ? makes reference to "the Rialto":

Now, what news on the Rialto?

— Act III, Scene i, Line ?

The Rialto is a central area of Venice, Italy, in the sestiere of San Polo. It is, and has been for many centuries, the financial and commercial heart of the city. Il Gobbo di Rialto (the Hunchback of the Rialto) is a sixteenth century marble statue of a hunchback found opposite the Church of San Giacomo di Rialto at the end of the Rialto in Venice, which is said to communicate with the Pasquino (one of the talking statues of Rome) that was used as an agent for critical commentaries against the Pope and the authorities, whereby satirical notes would be attached anonymously to the base of the statue in the Rialto purporting to come from the Pasquino himself.

Roman Tax Collectors (Roman Empire)

WIP

Act I, Scene iii, Line ? makes reference to "a fawning publican":

How like a fawning publican he looks!

— Act I, Scene iii, Line ?

Publicans were despised Jews who collaborated with the Roman Empire. Because they were best known for collecting tolls or taxes, they were commonly known as tax collectors.

The parable of the Pharisee & the Publican (or the Pharisee & the Tax Collector) is a parable of Jesus that appears in the Gospel of Luke (18:9–14) whereby a self-righteous Pharisee, obsessed by his own virtue, is contrasted with a publican who humbly asks God for mercy.

Tax farming was originally a Roman practice whereby the burden of tax collection was reassigned by the Roman State to private individuals or groups. In essence, these individuals or groups paid the taxes for a certain area and for a certain period of time and then attempted to cover their outlay by collecting money or saleable goods from the people within that area. The system was set up by Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC primarily to increase the efficiency of tax collection within Rome itself but the system quickly spread to the Provinces. Within the Roman Empire, these private individuals and groups which collected taxes in lieu of the bid (i.e. rent) they had paid to the state were known as publicani, of whom the best known is the disciple of Jesus Matthew the Apostle, a publicanus in the village of Capernaum in the province of Galilee. The system was widely abused, and the actions of the publicani were fiercely criticised. They were accused of insurance fraud in delivering goods during the Punic wars, of excessive greed when collecting taxes in the provinces, of exceptionally cruel conduct towards slave labour working in the mines, and of fraudulent practices in trying to get rid of unprofitable public contracts. Reforms were enacted by Augustus and Diocletian. Tax farming practices are believed to have contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in Western Europe.

At the height of the Republic's era of provincial expansion (roughly 146 BC until the end of the Republic in 27 BC) the Roman tax farming system was very profitable for the publicani. The right to collect taxes for a particular region would be auctioned every few years for a value that (in theory) approximated the tax available for collection in that region. The payment to Rome was treated as a loan and the publicani would receive interest on their payment at the end of the collection period. In addition, any excess (over their bid) tax collected would be pure profit for the publicani. The principal risk to the publicani was that the tax collected would be less than the sum bid.

In the Roman Republic, the distinction between politics and business was clear-cut. Senators could not take part in the management of the societas publicanorum or other business activities, but they could be shareholders of the companies. Likewise, private contractors could not enter seats in the Senate.

The Seven Bowls of Judgment (Christian Scripture)

Revelations 16:1

Act II, Scene ix, Line 63 makes reference to "Seven times tried that judgment is":

The fire seven times tried this,

Seven times tried that judgment is,

That did never choose amiss.

— Act II, Scene ix, Lines 63-65

The Seven Bowls are a set of plagues mentioned in Revelation 16. They are recorded as apocalyptic events that were seen in the vision of the Revelation of Jesus Christ, by John of Patmos. Seven angels are given seven bowls of God's wrath, each consisting of judgements full of the wrath of God. These seven bowls of God's wrath are poured out on the wicked and the followers of the Antichrist after the sounding of the seven trumpets. The Seven Bowls are introduced by the seventh trumpet, and the Seven Trumpets are introduced by the seventh seal.

The King James Bible version of Revelations 16:1 refers to the seven angels being instructed to pour out the vials of God's wrath onto the earth:

1 AND I heard a great voice out of the temple saying to the seven angels, Go your ways, and pour out the vials of the wrath of God upon the earth.

— Revelations 16:1

The King James Bible version of the verse is: "¹ AND I heard a great voice out of the temple saying to the seven angels, Go your ways, and pour out the vials of the wrath of God upon the earth."

Lady Seymour (Contemporary)

Act II, Scene ii, Line ? makes reference to "I am sure Margery your / wife is my mother":

I know not what I shall think of that: but I am

Launcelot, the Jew's man, and I am sure Margery your

wife is my mother.

— Act II, Scene ii, Line ?

Act II, Scene ii, Line ? makes reference to "Her name is Margery, indeed":

Her name is Margery, indeed: I'll be sworn, if thou be Launcelot, thou art mine own flesh and blood.

— Act II, Scene ii, Line ?

Margery Wentworth (also known as Margaret Wentworth, and as both Lady Seymour and Dame Margery Seymour) (c. 1478 – 18 October 1550), was the wife of Sir John Seymour, the mother of Queen Jane Seymour (the third wife of King Henry VIII of England), and grandmother of King Edward VI of England. Jane Seymour (c. 1508 – 24 October 1537) was Queen of England as the third wife of King Henry VIII from their marriage on 30 May 1536 until her death the next year. Through her maternal grandfather, Jane Seymour was a descendant of King Edward III's son Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence. Because of this, she and King Henry VIII were fifth cousins, and she also shared a great-grandmother, Elizabeth Cheney, with his second and fifth wives, Anne Boleyn (c. 1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536) and Catherine Howard (c. 1523 – 13 February 1542). Jane Seymour became queen following the execution of Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn, who was accused by King Henry VIII of adultery after failing to produce the male heir he so desperately desired. Jane, however, died of postnatal complications less than two weeks after the birth of her only child, the future King Edward VI. She was the only wife of Henry to receive a queen's funeral, and he was later buried alongside her remains in St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle. Jane was not as highly educated as Henry's first and second wives, Catherine of Aragon (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) and Anne Boleyn. She could read and write a little, but was much better at needlework and household management, which were considered much more necessary for women. Her needlework was reportedly beautiful and elaborate; some of it survived as late as 1652, when it is recorded to have been given to the Seymour family. After her death, it was noted that Henry was an "enthusiastic embroiderer". Jane became a maid-of-honour in 1532 to Queen Catherine, but may have served her as early as 1527, and went on to serve Queen Anne with her sister Elizabeth. The first report of Henry's interest in Jane was in February 1536, about three months before Anne's execution. She was regarded as meek, gentle, simple, and chaste, with her large family making her thought to be suitable to have many children. Henry VIII was betrothed to Jane on 20 May 1536, the day after Anne Boleyn's execution. They were married at the Palace of Whitehall, Whitehall, London, in the Queen's closet by Bishop Gardiner on 30 May 1536. As a wedding gift he granted her 104 manors in four counties as well as a number of forests and hunting chases for her jointure, the income to support her during their marriage. She was publicly proclaimed queen on 4 June 1536. Her well-publicised sympathy for the late Queen Catherine and her daughter Mary showed her to be compassionate and made her a popular figure with the common people and most of the courtiers. She was never crowned because of plague in London, where the coronation was to take place. Henry may have been reluctant to have her crowned before she had fulfilled her duty as a queen consort by bearing him a male heir. Jane formed a close relationship with her stepdaughter Mary, making efforts to have Mary restored to court and to the royal succession, behind any children she might have with Henry. She brought up the issue of Mary's restoration both before and after she became queen. While she was unable to restore Mary to the line of succession, she was able to reconcile her with Henry. Chapuys wrote to Emperor Charles V of her compassion and efforts on behalf of Mary's return to favour. A letter from Mary to her shows Mary's gratitude. While it was she who first pushed for the restoration, Mary and Elizabeth were not reinstated to the succession until Henry's sixth wife, Catherine Parr, convinced him to do so. One non-contemporary source conjectures that Jane may have been pregnant and had a miscarriage by Christmas 1536. In January 1537, Jane conceived again. During the summer, she took no public engagements and led a relatively quiet life, attended by the royal physicians and the best midwives in the kingdom. She went into confinement in September 1537 and gave birth to the coveted male heir, the future King Edward VI, at two o'clock in the morning on 12 October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace. Edward was christened on 15 October 1537, without his mother in attendance, as was the custom. He was the only legitimate son of Henry VIII to survive infancy. Both of his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, were present and carried Edward's train during the ceremony. Jane's labour had been difficult, lasting two days and three nights, probably because the baby was not well positioned. After the christening, it became clear that she was seriously ill. She died on 24 October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace. Within a few weeks, there were conflicting accounts of the cause of her death. According to King Edward's biographer Jennifer Loach, her death may have been due to an infection from a retained placenta. According to Alison Weir, she may have succumbed to puerperal fever following a bacterial infection contracted during the birth. Weir has also speculated, after medical consultation, that the cause of her death was a pulmonary embolism. Jane was buried on 12 November 1537 in St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle after the funeral in which her stepdaughter Mary acted as chief mourner. A procession of 29 mourners followed Mary, one for every year of Jane's life. She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral. After her death, Henry wore black for the next three months. He married Anne of Cleves two years later, although marriage negotiations were tentatively begun soon after Jane's death. He put on weight during his widowerhood, becoming obese and swollen and developing diabetes and gout. Historians have speculated she was his favourite wife because she gave birth to a male heir. When he died in 1547, he was buried beside her, on his request, in the grave he had made for her. Jane gave the King the son he so desperately desired, helped to restore Mary to the succession and her father's affections, and used her influence to bring about the advancement of her family. Two of her brothers, Thomas and Edward, used her memory to improve their own fortunes. Thomas was rumoured to have been pursuing the future Elizabeth I, but married the queen dowager Catherine Parr (1512 – 5 September 1548) instead. In September 1548, Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Mary Seymour (she is believed to have died at about the age of two, possibly while in the care of Katherine Brandon, Duchess of Suffolk). In the days following, she became uncharacteristically hostile and delusional. Thomas lay in bed with her to quiet her, but she did not get better, and died of childbirth complications, just before Elizabeth's 15th birthday. He said he was "amazed" at her death; yet it opened up new opportunities for him, as his eye returned to Elizabeth. She avoided him, returning with her governess to her childhood home, Hatfield House in Hertfordshire. In the reign of the young King Edward VI, Edward set himself up as Lord Protector and de facto ruler of the kingdom. Both brothers eventually fell from power and were executed. Thomas had for years been trying to usurp his brother's position, and by 1548 the regency council was becoming aware of his bid for power. Somerset (Edward) tried to save his brother from ruin, calling a council meeting so that Thomas might explain himself. However, Thomas did not appear. On the night of 16 January 1549, for reasons that are not clear (perhaps to take the young king away in his own custody), Seymour was caught trying to break into the King's apartments at Hampton Court Palace. He entered the privy garden and woke one of the King's pet spaniels. In response to the dog's barking, he shot and killed it. The next day, he was arrested and sent to the Tower of London. The incident - being caught outside the king's bedroom, at night, with a loaded pistol - was interpreted in the most menacing light. When he was arrested for treason, Seymour's associates were also cast under suspicion, including 15-year-old Elizabeth. She did not realize her own danger until her servants, including her governess Kat Ashley, were also arrested. Upon realizing that Thomas would probably be executed, she was noticeably disconsolate, trying to free herself and her servants from suspicion. The regency council was sure of her complicity with Thomas and she was interrogated for weeks. But the council found itself in a sharply defined game of wits with Elizabeth, who proved to be a master of logic, defiance, and shrewdness. The embarrassing details of Seymour's improper behaviour towards her came to light but there was no evidence that Elizabeth had conspired with him.

The Straits of Dover (Geographic Region)

Act 5, Scene viii, Lines 28-29 makes reference to "in the narrow seas that part / The French and English":

I reasoned with a Frenchman yesterday,

Who told me, in the narrow seas that part
The French and English, there miscarried

A vessel of our country richly fraught.

— Act 5, Scene viii, Lines 27-30

The Straits of Dover or Dover Strait is the strait at the narrowest part of the English Channel, marking the boundary between the Channel and the North Sea, and separating Great Britain from continental Europe. The shortest distance across the strait, at approximately 20 miles (32 kilometres), is from the South Foreland, northeast of Dover in the English county of Kent, to Cap Gris Nez, a cape near to Calais in the French département of Pas-de-Calais. The Goodwin Sands that lie close to the major shipping lanes through the Straits of Dover are a notorious maritime hazard that over time have claimed thousands of ships.

Sultan Suleiman I (Ottoman Empire)

Act II, Scene i, Line 26 makes reference to "three fields of Sultan Solyman":

By this scimitar

That slew the Sophy and a Persian prince
That won three fields of Sultan Solyman,
I would o'erstare the sternest eyes that look,
Outbrave the heart most daring on the earth,
Pluck the young sucking cubs from the she-bear,
Yea, mock the lion when he roars for prey,

To win the lady.

— Act II, Scene i, Lines 24-31

Suleiman I (commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in Western Europe, and Suleiman the Lawgiver in his Ottoman realm) was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 until his death in 1566. Under his administration, the Ottoman Empire ruled over at least 25 million people. Suleiman succeeded his father, Selim I, as sultan on 30 September 1520 and began his reign with campaigns against the Christian powers in Central Europe and the Mediterranean, becoming a prominent monarch of 16th-century Europe, and presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's economic, military and political power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the three Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary, before his conquests were checked at the siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and through the Persian Gulf.

Traditional Roman Values (Roman Empire)

.

Tripoli, Lebanon (Geographic Region)

Act I, Scene iii, Line 18 makes reference to "an argosy bound to Tripolis":

Yet his means are in supposition: he

hath an argosy bound to Tripolis, another to the
Indies; I understand moreover, upon the Rialto, he
hath a third at Mexico, a fourth for England, and

other ventures he hath, squand'red abroad.

— Act I, Scene iii, Lines 17-21

Tripoli in Lebanon is listed (under the name "Tripolis in Phoenicia") as one of the Catholic titular sees, an episcopal see of a former diocese that no longer functions and is sometimes called a "dead diocese". It is the largest and most important city in northern Lebanon and the second-largest city in the country. The history of Tripoli dates back at least to the 14th century BCE. It was called Athar by the Phoenicians, and later Tripolis (meaning "three cities") by the Greek settlers, whence the modern Arabic name Ṭarābulus derives. According to classical writers Diodorus Siculus, Pliny the Elder, and Strabo, the city was founded by combining colonies from three different Phoenician cities – Tyre, Sidon and Arwad. These colonies were each a stadion (c. 180 m) apart from each other, and the combined city became known as "Triple City", or Tripolis in Greek. In the Arab world, Tripoli has been historically known as Ṭarābulus ash-Shām, or Levantine Tripoli, to distinguish it from its Libyan counterpart, known as Ṭarābulus al-Gharb ('Tripoli of the West'). Landmarks of Tripoli include the Mansouri Great Mosque and the Citadel of Tripoli, which is the largest crusader castle in Lebanon. Evidence of settlement in Tripoli dates back as early as 1400 BCE. In the 9th century, the Phoenicians established a trading station in Tripoli and later, under Persian rule, the city became the center of a confederation of the Phoenician city-states of Sidon, Tyre, and Arados Island. Under Hellenistic rule, Tripoli was used as a naval shipyard and the city enjoyed a period of autonomy. It came under Roman rule around 64 BCE. The 551 Beirut earthquake and tsunami destroyed the Byzantine city of Tripoli along with other Mediterranean coastal cities. Tripoli was conquered by an Arab Muslim army in 635. During Umayyad rule, Tripoli became a commercial and shipbuilding center. It achieved semi-independence under Fatimid rule, when it developed into a center of learning. The Crusaders laid siege to the city at in 1102 CE and were able finally to enter it on 12 July 1109 CE. This caused extensive destruction, including the burning of Tripoli's famous library, Dar al-'Ilm (House of Knowledge), with its thousands of volumes. During the Crusaders' rule, the city became the chief town of the County of Tripoli (Latin Crusader state of the Levant) and was also the seat of a bishopric. Tripoli was home to a busy port and was a major center of silk weaving, with as many as 4,000 looms. Important products of the time included lemons, oranges, and sugar cane. For 180 years, during the Frankish rule, Occitan was among the languages spoken in Tripoli and neighboring villages. At that time, Tripoli had a heterogeneous population including Western Europeans, Greeks, Armenians, Maronites, Nestorians, Jews, and Muslims. During the Crusade period, Tripoli witnessed the growth of the inland settlement surrounding the "Pilgrim's Mountain" (the citadel) into a built-up suburb including the main religious monuments of the city such as: The "Church of the Holy Sepulchre of Pilgrim's Mountain" (incorporating the Shiite shrine), the Santa Maria degli Angeli (Tripoli)Church of Saint Mary's of the Tower, and the Carmelite Church. The state was a major base of operations for the military order of the Knights Hospitaller, who occupied the famous castle Krak Des Chevaliers (today a UNESCO world heritage site). In the 1271 siege of Tripoli the Mamluk sultan Baybars unsuccessfully tried to capture the city. The state ceased to exist in 1289, when it was captured by the Egyptian Mamluk sultan Qalawun in the Fall of Tripoli, during which the old port part of the city was destroyed. A new inland city was then built near the old castle. During Ottoman rule from 1516 to 1918, it retained its prosperity and commercial importance. In 1643, the Catholic Church established the Apostolic Prefecture (a 'pre-diocesan' missionary jurisdiction where the Catholic Church is not yet sufficiently developed to have it made a diocese) of Tripoli on territory canonically split off from the Spanish Diocese of Islas Canarias.

Usury (Christian Scripture)

Act I, Scene iii, Line 36 makes reference to "he lends out money gratis":

I hate him for he is a Christian,

But more for that in low simplicity
He lends out money gratis and brings down

The rate of usance here with us in Venice.

— Act I, Scene iii, Lines 34-37

The Old Testament "condemns the practice of charging interest on a poor person because a loan should be an act of compassion and taking care of one’s neighbor"; it teaches that "making a profit off a loan from a poor person is exploiting that person (Exodus 22:25–27). Similarly, charging of interest or the taking of clothing as pledges is condemned in Ezekiel 18 (early 6th century BC), and Deuteronomy 23:19 prohibits the taking of interest in the form of money or food when lending to a "brother". The New Testament likewise teaches giving rather than loaning money to those who need it: "And if you lend to those from whom you expect repayment, what credit is that to you? Even sinners lend to sinners, expecting to be repaid in full. But love your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them, expecting nothing in return. Then your reward will be great, and you will be sons of the Most High; for He is kind to the ungrateful and wicked. Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful." - Luke 6:34-36 NIV

Venus (Roman Mythology)

Act II, Scene vi, Line 5 makes reference to "Venus' pigeons":

"Oh, ten times faster Venus' pigeons fly
To seal love’s bonds new made than they are wont

To keep obligèd faith unforfeited."

— Act II, Scene vi, Lines 5-7

Venus is a Roman goddess, whose functions encompass love, beauty, desire, sex, fertility, prosperity, and victory. In Roman mythology, she was the ancestor of the Roman people through her son, Aeneas, who survived the fall of Troy and fled to Italy. The Romans adapted the myths and iconography of her Greek counterpart Aphrodite for Roman art and Latin literature. In the later classical tradition of the West, Venus became one of the most widely referenced deities of Greco-Roman mythology as the embodiment of love and sexuality. As Aphrodite, her major symbols include seashells, myrtles, roses, doves, sparrows, and swans, with her most prominent avian symbol being the dove. She frequently appears with doves in ancient Greek pottery and the temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwest slope of the Athenian Acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks. Votive offerings of small, white, marble doves were also discovered in the temple of Aphrodite at Daphni. According to myth, the dove was originally a nymph named Peristera who helped Aphrodite win in a flower-picking contest over her son Eros; for this Eros turned Peristera into a dove, but Aphrodite took the dove under her wing and made it her sacred bird. Also according to myth, she turned Melus's wife, Pelia, into a dove after she had hanged herself from an apple tree out of grief for her husband's suicide (by the same method) because of his grief for the death of his childhood friend, Adonis, by a boar while hunting.

References

https://www.elizabethfiles.com/was-elizabeth-a-jealous-old-hag/3002/

https://www.elizabethi.org/contents/profile/appearancetwo.html

https://www.thetorah.com/article/shakespeare-plays-on-the-questionable-source-of-jacobs-wealth

https://www.scribd.com/document/612702963/act-1-scene-3

https://sacred-texts.com/jud/loj/loj108.htm

https://iranian.com/SamiGorganRoodi/2002/October/Shakespeare/index.html

https://www.enotes.com/topics/merchant-of-venice/questions/enumerate-conquests-achieved-by-prince-morocco-his-1356755

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Suleyman-the-Magnificent

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Safavid-dynasty

https://journals.openedition.org/shakespeare/1502?lang=en

https://www.perlego.com/index/history/gunpowder-plotters

https://www.google.com/search?q=%22a+general+Christian+union%22+james+i+vi+scotland

https://www.marxists.org/history/international/social-democracy/today/1889/09/international-review.htm

https://www.jstor.org/stable/27706822

https://muse.jhu.edu/article/416065

https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=-a60qzzSe80C&pg=PA143&lpg=PA143&dq=A+coin+that+bears+the+figure+of+an+angel+Stamped+in+gold,+but+that%E2%80%99s+insculped+upon&source=bl&ots=kx_RzCEaiP&sig=ACfU3U3z1EOO6NXH_RkEC7JoH0YKWaqz6w&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjHoZGqx5CGAxUehf0HHQe-AF04ChDoAXoECAgQAg#v=onepage&q=A%20coin%20that%20bears%20the%20figure%20of%20an%20angel%20Stamped%20in%20gold%2C%20but%20that%E2%80%99s%20insculped%20upon&f=false

https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35843991

https://hcommons.org/deposits/item/hc:17979/

https://www.shakespeare-online.com/plays/characters/merchantgobbo.html

https://www.guildford-shakespeare-company.co.uk/shakespeares-little-known-trip-to-italy/

https://www.thoughtco.com/shakespeare-lost-years-2985102

https://www.shakespearegeek.com/shakespeare_characters_by_play/the_merchant_of_venice.html

Black dog (folklore) http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/celtic/jce/gabrielhounds.html https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095839981

Middle_Ages: "Medieval images and sculptures may provide useful information about everyday life but a critical approach is warranted because irony, satire, and anachronism were popular stylistic devices of medieval artists." (https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages#CITEREFArnold2021 pp. 47–50) "As legislation made a clear distinction between free and unfree, there was no sharp break between the legal status of the free peasant and the aristocrat, and it was possible for a free peasant's family to rise into the aristocracy through military service.[90]" "From the early 13th century, laypeople were obliged to confess their sins to a priest at least once a year which reinforced priestly control of their life.[230]" "Women were officially required to be subordinate to some male, whether their father, husband, or other kinsman." "Rising trade brought new methods of dealing with money, and gold coinage was again minted in Europe, first in Florence and Genoa." "Economic growth provided opportunities to Jewish merchants to spread all over Europe with the local rulers' support.[247] As the Jews could not engage in prestigious trades outside their communities, they often took despised jobs such as ragmen or tax collectors.[248] They were especially active in moneylending for they could ignore the Christian clerics' condemnation on loan interest.[249] The Jewish moneylenders and pawn brokers reinforced antisemitism, which led to blood libels and pogroms. Church authorities' growing concerns about Jewish influence on Christian life inspired segregationist laws,[note 20] and even the Jews' permanent expulsion from England.[251]" "The papacy, long attached to an ideology of independence from secular influence, first asserted its claim to temporal authority over the entire Christian world.[280] " "Theatre developed in the guise of mystery plays, but comic farces, like those written by Adam de la Halle (d. 1287/88) also gained popularity.[342]"

Escheat "Although such escheated property is owned by the Crown, it is not part of the Crown Estate, unless the Crown (through the Crown Estate Commissioners) 'completes' the escheat, by taking steps to exert rights as owner. However, usually, in the example given above, the tenants of the flats, or their mortgagees would exercise their rights given by the Insolvency Act 1986 to have the freehold property transferred to them. This is the main difference between escheat and bona vacantia, as in the latter, a grant takes place automatically, with no need to 'complete' the transaction."

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