Draft:Modern space race

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The modern space race, also commonly referred to as the "new space race", is a 21st-century competition between the United States and China to lay claims on the Moon, Mars, and beyond. It has origins dating back to the late 1950s and to the original Space Race between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, two Cold War rivals. The modern space race has encouraged a renewed interest in space exploration and human spaceflight, as well as also grown concerns of the Chinese becoming the dominant space power within the next two decades.[1][2][3]

Following the end of NASA's Space Shuttle and Constellation programs, interest in American space exploration and human spaceflight waned.[4] This left NASA stuck with no way to get to space, and as a result, had to heavily rely and contract private spaceflight companies such as SpaceX and Blue Origin to carry cargo and astronauts to the International Space Station and beyond.[5][6] At the same time, however, the Chinese space program took off and made great strides in spaceflight over the following years – with the development of its Chang'e program and Tiangong space station.[7][8] The Chinese space program's rapid development sparked concerns across the world that it would soon overtake NASA and the U.S. to become the dominant power in space.[9][10]

The United States Congress, prompted by the sudden rise in China's space program and its use of military technology in space, signed the Wolf Amendment in 2011 to prohibit NASA and the CNSA from bilaterally working or cooperating together.[11][12] Further space directives signed over the next couple of years also called for NASA to ramp up development of its' Space Launch System and the Artemis program following a plague of funding and financial issues.[13][14] Russia, seeing the immense success China's space program had undergone, sought to collaborate and align themselves with China in the new space race.[15][16] Similarly, NASA established the Artemis Accords in a US-led international coalition for cooperation in the civil exploration and peaceful use of the Moon, Mars, and other astronomical objects.[17] The establishment of the Artemis Accords allowed for the development of the Artemis program, which kick-started in November 2022 off the back of a successful Artemis 1 mission.[18] NASA chief Bill Nelson a few months later in January remarked that, "it is a fact: we're in a space race" – going on to warn how China could claim the Moon and monopolize its' resource-rich areas.[19][20]

Origins[edit]

Space Race emerges as the Chinese space agency develops[edit]

NASA's Space Shuttle

The earliest origins of the modern space race date back to the late 1950s wherein the Chinese's space agency kicked off, albeit with limited success.[21] Over the following years, things accelerated with the emergence of the original Space Race between the U.S. and the Soviets. While the U.S. made drastic strides through the development of its Gemini, Mercury, and Apollo programs, the Chinese space program's development was slow with its first monumental breakthrough being on July 19, 1964, through the launch of its first biological experiment to the edge of space – a rocket carrying eight white mice.[22] A few years later, China's Mao Zedong approved Project "714", which called for the development of a human space capsule called "Shuguang 1". The project was short-lived, however, and collapsed following the Cultural Revolution in 1976.[23] Development continued as the Space Race eventually began to ramp down, with the Chinese successfully launching its' first Long March rocket in 1970.[10] By the early 1980s, NASA had pulled the plug on its' Apollo program – essentially "rocketing" away from the Moon for over 50 years – to pursue the Space Shuttle.[24] The Chinese, however, had continued development on their Long March rockets following early success in their Long March 1 rocket – with their next generation Long March 2 rocket's first successful flight being in 1975. The success that the Chinese had experienced with their rockets did not go unnoticed, with the United States contracting China to launch satellites into space using their Long March 3 rocket in 1986[25] – and then again in 1988.[26] The same year, China's Deng Xiaoping approved Project 863, which called for the development of a Chinese crewed spacecraft. The "863" project was chronicled as a pivotal moment in the country's space ambitions.[22]

Funding ramps up as NASA shifts focus to low earth orbit[edit]

Following the approval of project 863, the Chinese amped up funding in order to get development of its' crewed spacecraft underway.[27] In the meantime however, the Chinese continued development on its' Long March rockets, with the continued use of its' Long March 2C and 3, and the inaugural flight of its' Long March 4A in 1988.[28] As the Chinese saw prolonged success with rockets, development on project 863 ensued and pushed forward.[29] Meanwhile, the United States, picking up the pieces from the 1986 Space Shuttle disaster, pushed ahead with their Discovery, Atlantis, and Challenger spacecrafts to successfully launch astronauts into low earth orbit once again in 1988 following nearly 3 years on hiatus.[30] In 1990, NASA launched the Hubble Space Telescope aboard its Space Shuttle – an immense task as the telescope later turned to be key for numerous astronomical discoveries and gave NASA "a gateway into the stars".[31] Although it wasn't retired, the Hubble was still nevertheless later overshadowed by its successor, the James Webb Space Telescope in late 2021.[32][33]

The Chinese during this time continued to expand its branch of rockets with the entrance of the Long March 2E on July 16, 1990.[34] The 2E provided the "basis" for Chinese human spaceflight.[28] In addition, the first foreign payload on a Chinese rocket – the AsiaSat 1 – was launched aboard a Long March 3 on April 7, 1990.[35] In the years following, Chinese space ambitions grew large with China's Jiang Zemin approving "project 921", a plan that called for the development of a crewed Chinese space station by 2020.[22][36]

China falters amid U.S. embargo[edit]

See also: International Traffic in Arms Regulations § Satellite components

China's space program suffered major setbacks from 1992 to 1996, mainly through its faulty Long March 2E rocket.[37] The 2E was later identified to have been designed with a defective payload fairing, which collapsed when faced with the rocket's excessive vibration.[38] In the 2E's seven launches over a 6-year long period, it destroyed the Optus B2 and Apstar 2 satellites, while also damaging the AsiaSat 2.[39] In addition to the 2E, China's Long March 3 and 3B also suffered severe setbacks. In 1996, a 3B carrying the Intelsat 708 satellite veered off course seconds after liftoff and crashed into a nearby village, destroying the satellite as well as killing 6 and injuring 57 people.[22][40] A couple of months following the Xichang Disaster, China's Long March 3 also experienced a partial failure during the launch of Chinasat-7.[41][42]

These failures sparked investigations into the matter, with the most notable being the Apstar 2 and Intelsat 708 investigations.[39] However, great political controversy arose once United States companies began to participate in these investigations.[43] In the Cox Report, the United States Congress accused Space Systems/Loral and Hughes Aircraft Company of transferring information that would improve the design of Chinese rockets and ballistic missiles.[44] Following this, the U.S. Congress "transferred export control responsibility for all commercial and non-commercial satellites" from the Commerce Department's Export Administration Regulations to the State Department's International Traffic in Arms Regulations in 1999.[45][46] The shift turned to be very restrictive in terms of U.S. satellite components, with essentially this "embargo" having severe repercussions on the satellite launch industry.[47] Many launches had to be shelved or postponed due to commercial payloads containing items of U.S. origin.[48][49] For example, Chinasat-8, which was scheduled to launch in April 1999 aboard a Long March 3B, was placed in storage, sold to Singaporean company ProtoStar – and then finally launched aboard the European rocket Ariane 5 in 2008.[50] This resulted in a massive loss in excess of $2.35 billion to foreign sales.[47] Many European companies still concur problems with this today, with many European companies currently working on ways to develop replacements for U.S. satellite components.[51]

Return to success as China's human spaceflight program takes off[edit]

Following major setbacks from 1992 to 1996, the faulty 2E was retired and therefore withdrawn from the market.[28] This resulted in the Chinese making design changes to their rockets in order to improve the reliability of Long March rockets. Following the design changes, Long March rockets reliability increased drastically with their rockets experiencing no failures from August 1996 to August 2011.[52] Moreover, in November 1999, Xiaoping and Zemin's visions for a crewed spacecraft and space station through the "863" and "921" projects finally came to fruition, with the first uncrewed launch of the Shenzhou spacecraft.[53] The success of Shenzhou 1 was reassuring for the Chinese, and encouraged an influx in funding for the further development of the Shenzhou spacecraft, as well as project 921.[54][55] In addition to the development of the Shenzhou spacecraft, the Long March "2F" was developed as well.[56] The 2F was designed with the purpose of launching the Shenzhou into LEO as part of project 921's mission of creating a space station.[57] Over the following years, the duo of the 2F and the Shenzhou would continue to be perfected until hard work finally bore fruit through the successful launch of Shenzhou 5 on October 15, 2003. Through the success of this launch, China made history by placing the first Chinese astronaut – Yang Liwei – into orbit.[58] This feat also made China only the third country, behind the U.S. and Russia, to successfully launch an astronaut into space.[59]

In contrast, however, NASA had experienced a repeat of the disaster that unfolded in 1986, when the Space Shuttle Columbia broke up as it returned to Earth – killing all seven astronauts.[60] Only a few years prior, NASA embarked on an truly international endeavor to launch and expand the International Space Station, an architectural marvel which "showcased humanity's ingenuity" and had contributed to many scientific discoveries.[61][62] Nevertheless, in the aftermath of the disaster, NASA would not fly its Space Shuttle again until July 2006 – with the successful launch of its STS-121 mission.[63] Following this, NASA returned the Space Shuttle back to its original 7 missions-a-year schedule.[60]

NASA begins return to the moon amid major Chinese success[edit]

It is time for America to take the next steps. Today I announce a new plan to explore space and extend a human presence across our solar system. We will begin the effort quickly, using existing programs and personnel. We'll make steady progress, one mission, one voyage, one landing at a time.

— George W. Bush,
Unveiling of a new plan for space exploration, January 14, 2004[64]

On January 14, 2004, amid the aftermath of the Columbia disaster, president George W. Bush unveiled a new plan for space exploration at NASA's headquarters.[65] This "plan" called for the completion of the International Space Station by 2010 and a goal of returning to the Moon by 2020. By returning to the Moon, Bush claimed that it would act as a launching pad for Mars.[66] Thus, the Constellation program was established with the goal of fulfilling Bush's plan. Bush also announced plans to retire the Space Shuttle program[67][68] and NASA, therefore, began to develop a new crewed launch vehicle called the Ares I, as well as a new crewed capsule called the Orion spacecraft under the Constellation program.[69]

Meanwhile, the Chinese were making great progress with their 863 and 912 projects, mostly in part due to the establishment of the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program in 2003.[70] The establishment of the program led to key breakthroughs in lunar exploration and also led to the development of China's Chang'e program.[71] In addition, China's manned space program was also in full flow with its second manned mission, Shenzhou 6, successfully launching in October 2005.[72] By mid–2006, China had set up deep space network facilities all around the country to support its Chang'e 1 mission and had its next manned missions, Shenzhou 7 and Shenzhou 8 tentatively planned for 2008 and sometime between 2009 and 2011 respectively.[73][74] In addition, Chinese plans of a space station as a part of the 921 project also came to light, with it being linked to the Shenzhou 8 mission. The station's design was similar to that of the Soviet's Salyut space stations.[75]

Constellation, Space Shuttle programs scrapped[edit]

In 2008, problems with NASA's Constellation program arose, with reports conducted by the Government Accountability Office stating that the program had "several critical issues" and that NASA's new Ares spacecraft may not work as intended and may never actually reach orbit.[76] NASA, however, remained optimistic of the program, saying that they had mitigation practices in place for the Ares.[77][78] Many politicians, however, remained skeptical of the program. As a result, funding slowed and NASA's budget was reduced to $17 billion, about 0.57% of the federal budget, and about a 25% decrease from 2000.[79] In 2009, the Augustine Committee concluded that the program was massively underfunded and would need to have great budget increases for the program to even get beyond low Earth orbit.[80][81] Following the investigation, the Obama administration scrapped the Constellation program on the grounds of it being "over-budget" and "behind schedule".[82] Following the scrubbing of the program, Obama began to push for a revamp at NASA, all the while outlining his "vision" for the privatization of manned spaceflight and flights to Mars.[83][84] Obama also announced what he called the "Asteroid Redirect Mission" as a "stepping stone" to Mars.[85] In lieu of this, a new plan was established that pledged adequate funding for the development of a spacecraft capable of deep space exploration by 2025 and a Mars mission by 2030.[86] As such, following some pushback from Congress, the Ares V – developed under Constellation – was redirected to support Obama's new space policy.[87][88]

In September 2011, NASA unveiled its new rocket for deep space missions.[89] Called the "Space Launch System", or "SLS", the rocket would utilize technology from the Space Shuttle and the former Constellation program's Ares V.[90][91] Projected to cost roughly $18 billion,[92][93] the rocket was touted to serve as a replacement for the Space Shuttle[94] (as was the former Ares V[95]), which retired on July 21, 2011, following its STS-135 mission.[96] By late 2012 and early 2013, despite being mired with various problems within its development, SLS was still on track to hit its original target launch date of sometime in 2017.[97][98] By 2014, NASA had fully committed to SLS - with nearly $7 billion in spending costs,[99] and SLS passing numerous "critical design reviews".[100][101] Also by this time, NASA had also successfully launched its Orion spacecraft aboard a Delta IV Heavy as part of a greater flight test for SLS.[102] However, NASA's timeline had shifted back from an original 2017 launch date to now a November 2018 launch date, with NASA citing that they wanted to factor in previously "unforeseen engineering challenges".[99] The delay sparked concerns in Congress about other potential delays and cost overruns.[103]

Growing political divide threatens space program[edit]

A divide in Congress became increasingly visible by 2015 as politicians became increasingly skeptical of Obama's previously mentioned Asteroid Redirect Mission and his Mars vision as a whole.[104][105]

US-China tensions rise as NASA ramps up development[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Herman, Arthur (September 11, 2022). "How to Beat China in the New Space Race". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved June 6, 2023.
  2. ^ Davenport, Christian (January 14, 2023). "Lunar relations: The U.S., China and a new brand of space race". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 6, 2023.
  3. ^ Marshall, Tim (April 12, 2023). "China's Bid to Win the New Space Race". Wired UK. Retrieved June 6, 2023.
  4. ^ Brand, William J. (July 3, 2011). "With the Shuttle Program Ending, Fears of Decline at NASA". The New York Times. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  5. ^ Kramer, Miriam (December 7, 2021). "NASA's future is in private space companies' hands". Axios. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  6. ^ Davenport, Christian (February 25, 2021). "As private companies erode government's hold on space travel, NASA looks to open a new frontier". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  7. ^ Kwong, Ray (July 7, 2011). "U.S. Boldly Goes No More as China's Space Program Takes Off". Forbes. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  8. ^ Tania Branigan, Ian Sample (April 26, 2011). "China unveils rival to International Space Station". The Guardian. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  9. ^ Pal, Alasdair (November 28, 2022). "China poses increasing threat in military space race, top US general says". Reuters. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  10. ^ a b Campbell, Charlie (July 17, 2019). "From Satellites to the Moon and Mars, China Is Quickly Becoming a Space Superpower". Time. Retrieved June 8, 2023.
  11. ^ David, Leonard (August 2, 2021). "Can the U.S. and China Cooperate in Space?". Scientific American. Retrieved December 2, 2023.
  12. ^ Whitford, George (October 27, 2019). "Trouble in the Stars: The Importance of US-China Bilateral Cooperation in Space". Harvard University. Retrieved December 2, 2023.
  13. ^ Imperato, Anthony; Garretson, Peter; Harrison, Richard (June 1, 2021). "To Compete with China in Space, America Must Ramp up Funding". The National Interest. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  14. ^ Harshberger, Caleb (February 22, 2023). "NASA Speeds Up Quest to Beat China to Mining Metals on the Moon". Bloomberg Law. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  15. ^ Ridgwell, Henry (December 17, 2022). "China-Russia Collaboration in Space Poses Challenge for West". Voice of America. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  16. ^ Julienne, Marc (December 8, 2022). Bergmann, Max (ed.). "China-Russia Cooperation in Space: The Reality behind the Speeches in Max Bergmann (eds.), Understanding the Broader Transatlantic Security Implications of Greater Sino-Russian Military Alignment, CSIS, December 2022". Institut français des relations internationales. CSIS. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  17. ^ Whittington, Mark (February 13, 2023). "China is afraid of NASA's Artemis return to the moon". Washington Examiner. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  18. ^ Keskin, Buse, ed. (September 15, 2022). "New space race: Now China covets return to moon after NASA". Daily Sabah. Associated Press. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  19. ^ Helmore, Edward (January 2, 2023). "'We're in a space race': Nasa sounds alarm at Chinese designs on moon". The Guardian. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  20. ^ Rao, Devika (January 16, 2023). "The new space race". The Week. Retrieved June 9, 2023.
  21. ^ Kharpal, Arjun (June 29, 2021). "China once said it couldn't put a potato in space. Now it's eyeing Mars". CNBC. Retrieved June 12, 2023.
  22. ^ a b c d You, Li (December 12, 2022). "A Timeline of China's Advancements in Spaceflight". The New York Times. Retrieved June 12, 2023.
  23. ^ Wood, Peter; Stone, Alex; Lee, Taylor A. (March 1, 2021). "China's ground segment: Building the pillars of a great space power" (PDF). China Aerospace Studies Institute. Retrieved June 21, 2023. China initiated its first manned space program in April 1971, the 714 Project [714工程], but the project was canceled due to the lack of necessary supporting technologies and infrastructure...
  24. ^ "Issue no. 149 – 'Space Shuttle' a Big Issue". Sarasota Herald-Tribune. March 1, 1971. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
  25. ^ Conolly, Martin (May 13, 1986). "China to launch U.S. satellites". The Observer. Retrieved June 13, 2023.
  26. ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey (September 10, 1988). "Reagan Backs Plan to Launch Satellites From China Rockets". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 16, 2023.
  27. ^ Qiang Zhi, Margaret M. Pearson (March 5, 2016). "China's Hybrid Adaptive Bureaucracy: The Case of the 863 Program for Science and Technology" (PDF). The University of Maryland. Retrieved June 16, 2023. ... the 863 program's goals of placing important scientists rather than political cadres in charge of project choices using a new funding protocol won out...
  28. ^ a b c Jones, Andrew (April 12, 2022). "China's Long March rocket family: History and photos". Space.com. Retrieved June 16, 2023.
  29. ^ Doshi, Rush (August 2, 2021). "The long game: China's grand strategy to displace American order". Brookings Institution. Retrieved June 18, 2023.
  30. ^ Kindy, David (September 29, 2021). "Following the 1986 and 2003 Shuttle Disasters, 'Discovery' Launched America Back Into Space". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved June 18, 2023.
  31. ^ Sheetz, Michael (April 24, 2020). "NASA's Hubble telescope launched 30 years ago – here's a look at Lockheed Martin building it". CNBC. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  32. ^ Witze, Alexandra (January 20, 2023). "Why the Hubble telescope is still in the game — even as JWST wows". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-023-00136-8. PMID 36670260. S2CID 256057515. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  33. ^ Resnick, Brian (January 4, 2022). "The largest space telescope in history is about to blow our minds". Vox. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  34. ^ Chen, Stephen. "China's 30-year long march to its biggest ever rocket launch". South China Morning Post. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  35. ^ "China launches U.S. satellite". United Press International. April 7, 1990. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  36. ^ Li, Chengzhi; Ma, Bingtao; Li, Xiang (August 18, 2022). "Space Policy, Volume 61: The Decision-Making Process of China's Human Spaceflight Program". ScienceDirect. Retrieved June 21, 2023. During the period from when the 863 Program was first initiated up until the early 1990s, China's top policymakers saw a change in rank, with Jiang Zemin becoming general secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China and... the approval of the program [Project 921] in September 1992...
  37. ^ Mintz, John (June 12, 1998). "Missile Failures Led To Loral-China Link". The Washington Post. Retrieved June 21, 2023.
  38. ^ Eleazer, Wayne (March 28, 2022). "Launch failures: fairings". The Space Review. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  39. ^ a b Pike, John (December 25, 2013). "CZ-2E Space Launch Vehicle". GlobalSecurity.org. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  40. ^ Zak, Anatoly (February 2013). "Disaster at Xichang". Smithsonian. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  41. ^ "China: Possible Missile Technology Transfers Under U.S. Satellite Export Policy - Actions and Chronology". EveryCRSReport.com. August 13, 1998. Retrieved June 22, 2023. ... China failed to launch its Chinasat-7 satellite (built by Hughes) into the correct orbit, after the third stage of the LM-3 rocket shut down early, reported the Far Eastern Economic Review (Aug. 29, 1996)...
  42. ^ "CHINA". Down to Earth. October 31, 1996. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  43. ^ "Facts Speak Louder Than Words and Lies Will Collapse By Themselves, Part III". Federation of American Scientists. July 1999. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  44. ^ Zelnio, Ryan (January 9, 2006). "A short history of export control policy". The Space Review. Archived from the original on December 11, 2017. Retrieved November 28, 2017.
  45. ^ Pooley, Eric (June 1, 1998). "Red Face Over China". Time. CNN. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  46. ^ Gerth, Jeff; Sanger, David E. (May 17, 1998). "How Chinese Won Rights To Launch Satellites For U.S." The New York Times. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  47. ^ a b Zinger, Kurtis J. (October 26, 2014). "AN OVERREACTION THAT DESTROYED AN INDUSTRY: THE PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE OF U.S. SATELLITE EXPORT CONTROLS" (PDF). University of Colorado Boulder. Retrieved June 23, 2023. ... The licensing regime under ITAR had extreme consequences. Indeed, 'the reported loss of foreign sales due to ITAR was $2.35 billion, mainly due to lengthy processing times...'
  48. ^ Pine, Art (December 31, 1998). "Panel Says Rocket Deals With China Hurt U.S. Security". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  49. ^ Xiaoming, Jin (September 4, 2003). "The China-U.S. Relationship in Science and Technology" (PDF). University of Oregon. Retrieved June 22, 2023. ... the committee submitted its final report to the congress in December 1998, in which they put forward 38 measures to tighten the restriction on technology export to China... ChinaSat-8 was in jeopardy due to new State Department regulations...
  50. ^ "Loral to convert unlaunched ChinaSat-8 for ProtoStar". Loral Space & Communications. Spaceflight Now. January 7, 2007. Retrieved June 22, 2023.
  51. ^ Hoffner, John (May 15, 2020). "The Myth of "ITAR-Free"". CSIS. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  52. ^ "Rocket malfunction causes satellite derailment". China Daily. China.org.cn. August 20, 2011. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  53. ^ Tjokrosetio, Danny (November 7, 2020). "China's First Spaceplanes: A Look Into the Early History of the Chinese Crewed Space Program". Medium. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  54. ^ Yilin, Zhu (February 17, 1999). "Space Policy: Volume 12, Issue 2 - Fast-track development of space technology in China". ScienceDirect. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  55. ^ Rose, Frank A. (April 2020). "Managing China's rise in outer space". Brookings Institution. Retrieved June 23, 2023.
  56. ^ Broad, William J. (October 14, 2003). "China's Long March Into Orbit". The New York Times. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
  57. ^ McDonald, Joe (November 2002). "Project 921: Russia and the United States have held the inside tracks in the space race. In the stretch, here comes China". Smithsonian Air & Space Magazine. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
  58. ^ Neill, Alexander (April 26, 2006). "Project 921: China's Quest to Conquer Space". Royal United Services Institute. Retrieved June 30, 2023. Almost exactly two years before, Chinese 'taikonaut' PLA Air Force (PLAAF) Lt. Col. Yang Liwei was immortalized in the annals of Chinese history as the first Chinese citizen to successfully complete a manned space mission...
  59. ^ Yardley, Jim (October 15, 2003). "China Sends a Man Into Orbit, Entering the U.S.-Russian Club". The New York Times. Retrieved June 30, 2003.
  60. ^ a b Elizabeth Howell, Daisy Dobrijevic (January 25, 2023). "Columbia Disaster: What happened and what NASA learned". Space.com. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
  61. ^ Achenbach, Joel (September 14, 2013). "The international space station is one of humanity's great engineering triumphs. But what is it for?". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 2, 2023.
  62. ^ Chang, Kenneth; Kowal, Mary Robinette; Ferreira, Becky; Kramer, Andrew E. (November 2, 2020). "The International Space Station: 20 Years of Promise, Peril and Fun". The New York Times. Retrieved July 2, 2023.
  63. ^ Boyle, Alan (June 28, 2006). "Countdown starts for space shuttle sequel". NBC News. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
  64. ^ David E. Sanger, Richard W. Stevenson (January 15, 2004). "Bush Backs Goal of Flight to Moon to Establish Base". The New York Times. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
  65. ^ Miles O'Brien, John King (January 15, 2004). "Bush unveils vision for moon and beyond". CNN. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
  66. ^ "Bush sets 'new course' for moon and beyond". NBC News. January 13, 2004. Retrieved June 30, 2023.
  67. ^ Adler, Doug (November 12, 2020). "Why did NASA retire the Space Shuttle?". Astronomy. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
  68. ^ Georgiou, Aristos (May 21, 2020). "Why Did the Space Shuttle Program End?". Newsweek. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
  69. ^ "NASA: Ares I and Orion Project Risks and Key Indicators to Measure Progress" (PDF). Government Accountability Office, Cristina T. Chaplain. April 3, 2008. Retrieved June 30, 2023. We have been focusing our work primarily on the Ares I Crew Launch Vehicle and the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle-2 , as they are among the first major efforts conducted as part of NASA's Constellation Program to support implementation of the Vision and represent a substantial investment for NASA...
  70. ^ Zheng, Yongchun; Ouyang, Ziyuan; Li, Chunlai; Liu, Jianzhong; Zhu, Yongliao (December 15, 2007). "China's Lunar Exploration Program: Present and future: Volume 56, Issue 7 (p. 881–886)". Retrieved July 1, 2023.
  71. ^ Xu Lin, Ouyang Ziyuan (July 2015). "Scientific Progress in China's Lunar Exploration Program" (PDF). Chinese Academy of Sciences. Retrieved July 4, 2023. China's Lunar Exploration Program (CLEP) was also named as Chang'E mission... the first stage of CLEP (circling around the moon) was accomplished by Chang'E-1, which made a breakthrough in the development of key technology of lunar orbiting exploration...
  72. ^ Malik, Tariq (October 16, 2005). "Shenzhou 6 Returns: China's Second Manned Mission Lands Safely". Space.com. Retrieved July 4, 2023.
  73. ^ "China's space quest gathers speed". CNN. March 22, 2006. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  74. ^ Li, J. L.; Guo, L.; Zhang, B. (2007). "The Chinese VLBI network and its astrometric role". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. 3 (S248): 182–185. Bibcode:2008IAUS..248..182L. doi:10.1017/S174392130801898X. In May 2006, two new antennas with diameters of 50m at Miyun near Beijing and 40m at Fenghunagshan at Kunming participated in tracking...
  75. ^ Miranda, Junior. "Tiangong: Part of Shenzhou". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Retrieved July 12, 2023.
  76. ^ Atkinson, Nancy (April 3, 2008). "Report: Constellation Program Has Serious Issues". Universe Today. Retrieved August 24, 2023.
  77. ^ "NASA Agency Has Taken Steps Toward Making Sound Investment Decisions for Ares I but Still Faces Challenging Knowledge Gaps" (PDF). Government Accountability Office. October 2007. Retrieved August 24, 2023.
  78. ^ Bergin, Chris (August 19, 2008). "Thrust Oscillation options outlined for Ares I PDR". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved August 24, 2023.
  79. ^ Schwartz, John (December 29, 2008). "The Fight Over NASA's Future". The New York Times. Retrieved August 24, 2023.
  80. ^ Spencer, Henry (February 11, 2010). "NASA moon plan was an illusion, wrapped in denial". New Scientist. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
  81. ^ "Defying Politics: Why the Obama Plan Is Good for NASA". Scientific American. December 1, 2010. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1210-16. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
  82. ^ Malik, Tariq (February 1, 2010). "Obama Budget Scraps NASA Moon Plan for '21st Century Space Program'". Space.com. Retrieved November 30, 2023.
  83. ^ Steve Holland, Irene Klotz (April 15, 2010). "Obama pushes NASA revamp, vision of Mars flight". Reuters. Retrieved December 2, 2023.
  84. ^ Matson, John (April 15, 2010). "Obama's Goal for Space Exploration Include a Manned Mission to Mars Orbit by the 2030s". Scientific American. Retrieved December 2, 2023.
  85. ^ Chang, Kenneth (April 15, 2010). "Obama Vows Renewed Space Program". The New York Times. Retrieved December 7, 2023.
  86. ^ Wall, Mike (January 20, 2017). "President Obama's Space Legacy: Mars, Private Spaceflight and More". Space.com. Retrieved December 2, 2023.
  87. ^ Kluger, Jeffrey (September 7, 2022). "Inside NASA's Struggle to Launch America Back to the Moon". Time. Retrieved December 2, 2023. But Congress pushed back... with less than 24 hours left before Congress' August recess, the Senate had unanimously approved authorization for a massive new rocket that would replace Ares V, keeping NASA's dream of deep-space travel alive...
  88. ^ Davis, Jason (October 3, 2016). "To Mars, with a monster rocket: How politicians and engineers created NASA's Space Launch System". The Planetary Society. Retrieved December 4, 2023.
  89. ^ Chow, Denise (September 14, 2011). "NASA Unveils New Giant Rocket for Deep Space Missions". Space.com. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  90. ^ Arockiam, Nicole; Whittecar, William; Edwards, Stephen (September 25, 2012). "Space Launch System Accelerated Booster Development Cycle". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved November 5, 2023. Following a number of studies, the much anticipated Space Launch System (SLS) was unveiled in September of 2011. The SLS core architecture consists of a cryogenic first stage with five Space Shuttle Main Engines (SSMEs), and a cryogenic second stage using a new J-2X engine...
  91. ^ Tillman, Nora Taylor; Howell, Elizabeth; Dutfield, Scott (March 16, 2022). "Space Launch System: NASA's megarocket for Artemis moon missions". Space.com. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  92. ^ Litwin, Ari (2012). "Human Spaceflight Decision-making As A Potential Well Problem". University of Central Florida. Retrieved December 6, 2023. This rocket, known as the Space Launch System (SLS)... is expected to cost $18 billion to develop including test flights and upgrades of the Kennedy Space Center...
  93. ^ May, Todd A.; Creech, Stephen D. (February 20, 2012). "NASA's Space Launch System: Affordability for Sustainability". National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  94. ^ Dreier, Casey (August 3, 2022). "Why we have the SLS". The Planetary Society. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  95. ^ Richardson, Allen J. (September 2008). "The Case to Save the Shuttle Program: An Opinion Piece". PBS. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  96. ^ Howell, Elizabeth (July 9, 2021). "The last voyage of NASA's space shuttle: Looking back at Atlantis' final mission 10 years later". Space.com. Retrieved December 5, 2023.
  97. ^ Coppinger, Rob (October 30, 2012). "NASA's Huge New SLS Rocket Could Power Missions Far Beyond Mars". Space.com. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  98. ^ Bergin, Chris (January 5, 2013). "SLS on track to CDR as engineers work though a baffling issue". NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  99. ^ a b Harwood, William (August 27, 2014). "NASA commits to $7 billion SLS development". CBS News. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  100. ^ "Space Launch System Core Stage" (PDF). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Universities Space Research Association. Retrieved December 6, 2023. All avionics components have completed their preliminary design review (PDR), and many have completed critical design review... the core stage [also] passed its Critical Design Review [in July 2014]—a major milestone for the program which proves the first new design for SLS is mature enough for production...
  101. ^ Rawcliffe, Britt (July 3, 2014). "Space Launch System Passes Critical Design Review For The Core Stage". SpaceFlight Insider. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  102. ^ Won, Brian (December 5, 2014). "Second time's the charm—NASA's Orion EFT-1 blasts off from the Cape". Ars Technica. Retrieved December 6, 2023.
  103. ^ Franzen, Carl (September 1, 2014). "NASA is building the largest rocket of all time for a 2018 launch". The Verge. Retrieved December 7, 2023.
  104. ^ Stromberg, Joseph (February 4, 2015). "For NASA, sending a person to Mars is simple. Dealing with Congress is hard". Vox. Retrieved December 7, 2023.
  105. ^ Anderson, Monica (December 16, 2015). "Americans divided on government's role in space exploration". Pew Research Center. Retrieved December 7, 2023.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Draft:Modern_space_race&oldid=1192467492"